The Strategies for Argument

1. The Strategies for Argument “Rhetoric is the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” Aristotle

2. Aristotle listed three modes of persuasion as part of the rhetorical situation • Ethical (ethos) • Logical (logos) • Emotional (pathos) • Commonly, these names are referred to by their Greek names: ethos, logos, pathos • There is also mythos (plot) in which Aristotle asserts that understanding the source is important; the nature of the topic should be considered • Each of these work in tandem to produce effective arguments. Modes of Persuasion

3. “The effective orator must possess the quality which…is in the very nature of things the greatest and most important, that is, he [or she] must be a good man [or woman].” ~Quintillian • Ethos refers to character, believability, trustworthiness, honesty, etc. • It is how we convince our audience, by virtue of our reputations, that we are to be taken seriously • Oftentimes, ethos is determined before we even present an argument. • Ethos and logos are closely tied • Ethically based arguments imply that claims can be supported by evidence and clear thinking that has led to reasonable conclusions Ethos

4. We rely on ethos to allow us to make sound judgments before committing to an action • Advertisers often use celebrity endorsements because their ethos helps sell products • Michael Jordan for Nike • Consequently, once ethos is destroyed, advertisers are likely to adopt new sponsorship • Tiger Woods • How often is ethos involved in politics? Constantly. Ethos

5. Arguments can be logical, but logos demands a precise implementation of information and language • Favors fact and reason over emotion for the sake of objectivity • Types of evidence (hierarchically organized) • Facts or statistics • Usually are undeniable and based on data • Personal experience • The eye witness can usually provide compelling testimony(law) • Authority • More opinion based, but credible only because of the expertise of the testimony Logos

6. All evidence, no matter the validity, is subject to interpretation and, therefore, must be employed with caution and strategy. Logos

7. Two types of reasoning • Inductive • Deductive • Inductive: presenting evidence and then coming to a conclusion • In the morning, you look at outside: sun is shining, sky is clear, the weather forecast calls for warm temperatures. You conclude that you should wear light clothing • Deductive: Having a conclusion and then presenting evidence to support it • Based on fundamental truths • All men are created equal; therefore, they have certain inalienable rights • The truth, right, or belief stemming deductive reasoning is the premise Patterns of Logic

8. The premise of an argument can be worked with in two different ways • Syllogism: a three-part argument in which the conclusion rests on two premises, major and minor. • Major: all people have hearts • Minor: John is a person • Conclusion: John has a heart • Enthymeme: A rhetorical syllogism where logic can be derived from the way the argument is constructed • I’d better close the windows, because the sky is getting darker • Major: A dark sky indicates rain • Minor: The sky is getting darker • Conclusion: Therefore, it will probably rain (and I should close the windows) Patterns of Logic

9. In response to the 2002 federal appeals court ruling that “under God” in the Pledge of Allegiance is unconstitutional: • “In light of the events of this past September (9/11), I think it would be hypocritical to omit an acknowledgment of a divine being under which the ideals and beliefs of this nation were created. And if you don’t think so, ask everyone how many of them prayed to God that day.” • This is an example of a logical fallacy, a problem in reasoning that negates the truth of the claim • Sometimes they can be powerfully illustrative and, thus, still win arguments despite their flaws • They should be avoided in most occasions as most speaking instances are concerned with truth • Also, the critical listener can detect and capitalize on logical fallacies Logical Fallacies

10. Appealing to pity: structuring an argument solely to stir an audience’s emotions without the help of evidence • Someone who has seldom come to class and fails the course argues, “I deserve to pass this class because I’ve had a lot of problems at home.” • Appealing to prejudice: structuring an argument centered around the values of a certain group • A newspaper may criticize or exploit the atrocities of a country we are at war with simply to win the crowd at home • Appealing to tradition: Letting the past speak for the present without evidence to warrant a claim • We cannot let women join our club because we’ve never let them join in the past • Arguing by analogy: using a comparison that does not considered similarities on more than one level • A politician tries to convince people to vote for him because of his outstanding record as a football player, claiming that football involves teamwork. It does indeed, but there many other skills that politics involve that football does not Logical Fallacies

11. Attributing False Cause: assuming that an event is the result of something that occurred before it • post hoc, ergo propter hoc: after this, therefore because of this • Someone is arrested for murder because they were seen near the house of the victim shortly before the murder. This person is then later released. He was simply reading the electric meter. • Good logic distinguishes between cause and coincidence • Guilt by association • Largely political • A candidate is a member of a church, that church comes under criticism, therefore, the candidate holds the same beliefs and must be criticized Logical Fallacies

12. Begging the Question: a conclusion similar to the premise • Claim: required courses like first-year composition are a waste of time • Conclusion: first-year composition should not be required • The author has assumed what the argument should be devoted to proving • Had the conclusion yielded something greater than the claim, it could have been avoided • Jumping to conclusion • Because one apple is sour, it does not mean that all apples are sour • Ad hominem • Making personal attacks on an opponent to draw attention away from the issue at hand Logical Fallacies

13. Opposing the straw man: easier to demolish a straw man than a live opponent • This is when an author pretends to respond to the views of his opponents by only responding to an extreme view • Sets up an artificial opposition • An argument against abolishing Social Security, when they opponent has merely suggested that Social Security should be reformed • Reason that does not follow • Non sequitor • Because the teacher likes Joe, he passed the quiz in calculus • The Slippery Slope • Opening the door to gay marriage will promote beastiality • No argument is free of logical fallacies Logical Fallacies

14. Very powerful and very risky • Appealing to fear, love, pity, and anger • People process these emotions differently and react differently when presented with them • Use pathos ethically • “Pushing the emotional buttons” of the listeners may help win the argument, but will it solve the problem? Is it the right way to address the issue? Pathos

15. Ethos, Pathos, or Logos?

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24. Ethos, Pathos, or Logos?

25. Ethos, Pathos, or Logos?

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