Problems and Issues in Sport

Introduction to Physical Education, Fitness, and Sport Problems and Issues in Sport Chapter 6

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Sport Injuries • Difficult to determine trends. • Acute injuries (e.g., sprains contusions) result in approx. 4,00,000 ER visits per year. • Overuse injuries are seen more in younger children (early age specialization likely contributes). • New trend: Extreme sport injuries (i.e., higher risks >> increased risk of injury).

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Sport Injuries (cont’d.) • Duquin (1988): Sado-asceticism . . . . Trend by adults and coaches to redefine pain as discomfort, and pushing kids to work “through the pain.”

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Youth Sport Coaching • Major dilemma: Attracting sufficient numbers of volunteer coaches, but not being able to require much in the form of certification. • Improvement is occurring in terms of requiring background checks, providing volunteer workshops, and Code of Ethics.

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Youth Sport Coaching (Cont’d.) • What little is known empirically, shows that youth sport coaches offer too much criticism, and little positive support. • This produced the “Coaching Effectiveness Training” program (Smoll, 1986).

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Youth Sport Coaching (Cont’d.) • “Coaching Effectiveness Training” program Philosophy: • Winning is an appropriate goal, but not the only one. • Losing does not imply failure. • Success comes in multiple forms. • Success is related to effort as much as it is to outcome.

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Impact of Sport on Family Life • Sport directly alters family life patterns • Transport kids to games and practices. • Fewer, if any, family dinners at home. • Increased expenditures on Sport (e.g., camps, club fees, gas, hotels etc.).

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Impact of Sport on Family Life • Parents can get quite overzealous. . . • Examples of inappropriate parent behavior? • What about the children’s view of their parents? (see also boxes 6.4 & 6.5) Would you want your parents to behave like that?

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Unequal Access (SES) • Opportunity & access to sport is skewed toward middle and upper-middle class children and youth (i.e., programs, facilities, equipment, coaching, etc.). • Those most in need, are least likely to have access. • What will you do to “level this playing field?”

Child and Youth Sport Problems (Cont’d.) • Trends in Child & Youth Sport (Cont’d.) • . . . BUT, much remains to be done: • Declines in public funding. • Increase in private/commercial programs. • Programs segregated by SES, race, and/or ethnicity. • Less access and opportunity for lower- SES children. • Children exploring other (less adult- dominated) activities.

Interscholastic Sport • Unique to U.S. society. • Scope of programs depends on school size and funding. • Often a strong binding force in especially smaller rural communities (See also Box 6.6)

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • It does carry its own problem . . . • Exclusion in the varsity model. • Youth & interscholastic sport injuries. • Eligibility and pass-to-play rules. • Specialization. • Performance enhancing supplements. • Coaching issues. • Funding: Pay-to-play / Booster clubs.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Varsity model: Exclusion. • Little to no access or opportunity for the lesser skilled adolescents. • “Where do I go if I still want • to play competitively? • Internationally, the focus is on broad-based programming for anyone . . . . (See Box 6.7)

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Injuries. • Centers for Disease Control (2006) study: (Across 9 sports & 425 High Schools) • 2,000.000 injuries. • 500.000 doctor visits. • 300.000 hospitalizations. • Injury rate higher during games. • Sprains, contusions, fractures, concussion are most common.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Injuries. • Centers for Disease Control (2006) study: (Across 9 sports & 425 High Schools) • Highest rate of injuries: Football, Wrestling, Soccer, & Girls’ Basketball. • Sprains, contusions, fractures, concussion are most common. • Lower number of injuries likely a result of better equipment and conditioning.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Eligibility & pass-to-play rules. • Students must meet eligibility standards to play, incl. pass-to-play criterion. Is Sport an extra-curricular activity, a privilege? . . . Or is it of basic educational importance for all?

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Performance enhancing supplements. • Increased media attention to use of dietary supplements and steroids in professional sport and High Schools. • Their health risks are documented for both adolescents and adults. • Random drug testing is now more common in High schools.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Performance enhancing supplements (Cont’d.). What the ethical obligations of those overseeing the sport and its athletes (i.e., coaches, athletic trainers, & parents) relative to such supplements?

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Coaching Issues. • Teacher-Coach role conflict: Balancing the demands of both, each with different rewards. • With schools being the venue, it follows that coaches would be teachers at the school . . . • Not so . . . Many are not directly affiliated with the school, and not required to be certified teachers.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Coaching Issues (Cont’d.). • Coaches are paid using supplementary contracts, that reflect a very low “hourly wage.” • Never-ending dilemma in hiring: Are you hired to teach first and also coach or vice versa?

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Funding: Pay-to-play / Booster Clubs. • Pressures placed on HS athletes (and coaches!) by parents, school administrators, and booster club members can be enormous (see Box 6.8). • If funding for HS athletics is dependent on fundraising by booster clubs, it adds additional pressure.

Interscholastic Sport (Cont’d.) • Pay-to-play ($2P) Plans • Though ruled as discriminatory) against those who can least afford it, $2P plans are more common than ever. • If not managed by the school district, it is the Booster club that oversees this program. • It goes against court efforts to equalize funding for education.

Intercollegiate Sport Has become BIG BUSINESS for Universities (notably in Division I)

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • Problems may differ between Division • I and III schools. • Main problems: • Recruiting violations and pressures. • Drugs used to enhance performance. • Economic disparities among top powers. • Economic pressures to win. • Treatment of athletes at the University.

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • Recruiting violations and pressures. • Competition for talented athletes among Universities is not always fair. • Violations often occur by way of alumni and “friends” exerting influence on athletes, coaches, and the University (e.g., gifts, cash, cars).

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • Drugs used to enhance performance. • Increased size, weight, and speed among athletes is the result of: • Improved training and conditioning . . . & • Performance enhancing drug use

Intercollegiate Sport • Drugs that enhance performance. • Drug testing among Univ. athletes is a complex issue relative to the “right to privacy”, and its constitutionality (i.e., 4th Amendment). • At what point is it considered a “reasonable search? • What if your belongings were searched?

Illegal • Creatine • Blood doping • Steroids • Diuretics • Stimulants

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • $$$ flows disproportionately to a select • few programs. • Main problems: • “The rich get richer.” • Aids in recruitment of new athletes. • May lead to cheating in less-established • programs (absence of an equalizing draft • system).

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • Economic pressures to win. • Main problems: • Large investments in facilities often • produce large deficits. • Donors & alumni contributions. • Also will encourage • cheating.

Intercollegiate Sport (Cont’d.) • Treatment of athletes at the University. • Main problems: • Exploiting of athletes. • Poor “quality of life” (e.g., chronic fatigue, poor • academic performance, low graduation rates, injuries).

Equity Issues in Sport • Women’s issues • Inequity still lingers, but progress has been • made. • Title IX >> increased • participation among • females, across all levels. • Overt vs. subtle • discrimination . . . ?

Equity Issues in Sport (Cont’d.) • Women’s issues (cont’d.) • Coaching and leadership positions still • mostly filled by males today. • Supreme court decisions have suppressed • upward mobility of females in • College sport. • Females coaches, AD’s, • and officials remain a • minority(e.g. Motley & Lavine, 2001; Pastore, 1994).

Equity Issues in Sport (Cont’d.) • Women’s issues (cont’d.) • Breaking the stereotypes: Increased participation by girls in contact & strength sports. VS.

Equity Issues in Sport (Cont’d.) • Women’s issues (cont’d.) • Further advancing the status of women will • require constant advocacy by all professionals • in Physical Education and Sport . . . • . . . as 19th Century views still • linger!

Equity Issues in Sport (Cont’d.) • Minority issues: • 1947: Jackie Robinson drafted by the • Brooklyn Dodgers (MLB). • Full racial integration for athletes only • occurred after court rulings (60s – 70s). Which Sports still have few minority participants?

Minority Issues (Cont’d.) • Minority issues (cont’d.) • Hires in leadership positions in both • collegiate and pro Sport • remain sparse (e.g., Lapchick, 2007).

Minority Issues (Cont’d.) • Minority issues (cont’d.) • Those in economically disadvantaged • communities have less access and • fewer opportunities for PA • (. . . Despite evidence of its benefits!). How are problems of inequity in Sport intertwined with society’s structural inequities?

Sport Systems How would you describe the structure of the U.S. Sport System? • Levels of participation? • Government involvement/regulation? • Funding? • Prevalence of Club Sport? • Certification of Sport coaches?

Alternative Goals for Sport Systems What are (or should be) the goals of a Sport System? • Direction of funding? • Government funding of Olympic-caliber • talents? • Increase opportunities, better coaching for • ALL non-elite participants? • Role of the private sector?

Sport in Perspective Despite its many problems . . . Sport has enormous potential to influence youth and adults positively. • An experience to be enjoyed . . . • Sport is not a cure-all . . . • Many organizations work hard to make it a positive, educational and fun experience.

Discussion Questions Do eligibility rules for sport participation in schools discriminate against less talented students?

Discussion Questions How early should athletes specialize? What are the benefits and problems of specialization at the high-school levels?

Discussion Questions If you were making policy for the NCAA, what policies would you suggest for a) drug abuse, b) recruiting violations, and c) academic progress of athletes?

Problems and Issues in Sport