“ No writing – no science !” Academic Writing

1. “No writing – no science!”Academic Writing Шарапкова Анастасия Андреевна warapkova@mail.ru

2. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические Лишнее придаточное The amount of these complexes peaked as early as at 20-40 s (Figure 2B), indicating a high rate of ribosomal scanning through the preceded 31-nt leader which is in accordance with the previously estimated speed of scanning ribosomes. This correlates

3. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические • The process of recognizing letters that comprise morphemes and words occurs during the fixations. • The signs that make up (comprise) morphemes and words are recognized only during the fixations.

4. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические • 4) Предложение, начинающееся с наречных конструкций или с придаточных предложений. • In the biochemically isolated PSII RC (D1/D2/cytb559 RC complex [2]) in which forward electron transfer from PheoD1-is blocked due to the absence of the plastoquinone acceptors, P680+PheoD1- recombines on the nanosecond time scale [3-7] to form the lowest excited triplet state of chlorophyll via the radical pair mechanism [5,8].

5. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические

6. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические

7. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические • It is important to note, that each mRNA molecule in our system was able to acquire only a single 43S complex onto its initiation region, since the distances between the AUG codons were too short to accommodate more than one ribosome. • Notably, each particular mRNA molecule in our system was able to acquire only a single 43S complex onto its initiation region, since the distances between the AUG codons were too short to accommodate more than one ribosome. • It wasfound that in the data available ___subjects from developing countries weresmaller and had lower metabolic rates as it was expected. • The data available from subjects in( of) developing countries were found to be unpredictablysmaller and had lower metabolic rates. • It is assumed that sliding presupposes the movement of the 43S complex along the mRNA to a 5’ distal AUG codon after a pronounced pause at the 5’ proximal AUG. • Sliding presupposes the movement of the 43S complex along the mRNA to a 5’ distal AUG codon after a pronounced pause at the 5’ proximal AUG.

8. It is unlikely there will be objections to the fact that in any science it is necessary to seek to improve the accuracy and adequacy of measurement and analytical tools. • However, there will hardly be objections against the(a) vital necessity to seek better accuracy and more adequate measurement, as well as analytical tools in any field of science or domain of knowledge.

9. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 2)синтаксические • 6) короткие монотонные предложения • Gut microbiota is important for Homan health. Genomic variation needs to be studied in order to get information about how it could be used in treating some diseases. • Given the importance of the gut microbiota in human health, an understanding of genomic variation in gut microbial populations will probably trigger applications towards human well-being and disease.

10. There's no second chance to make a first impression. Формулировка первого предложения • ________ a. It is hard to know which foods are safe to eat nowadays. • ________ b. In some large ocean fish, there are high levels ofmercury. • ________ c. Undercooked chicken and hamburger may carryE. coli bacteria. • ________ d. Not to mention mad cow disease. • ________ e. Food safety is an important issue.

11. ________ a. Hybrid automobiles more economical to operate thangasoline-powered cars. • ________ b. The new hybrid automobiles are very popular. • ________ c. Hybrid cars have good fuel economy because acomputer under the hood decides to run the electricmotor, the small gasoline engine, or the two together. • ________ d. The new hybrid automobiles are popular because oftheir fuel economy.

12. ______________a. The North American Catawba Indians of the Southeastand the Tlingit of the Northwest both see the rainbowas a kind of bridge between heaven and earth. • ________ b. A rainbow seen from an airplane is a complete circle. • ________ c. Many cultures interpret rainbows in positive ways. • ________ d. Rainbows are beautiful. • _______ e. The belief that you can find a pot of gold at arainbow's end.

13. Придумайте собственное первое предложение The past decade has witnessed a tremendous resurgence in the interest and use of medicinal plant products, especially in North America. • ______________________ • ______________ • Surveys of plant medicinal usage by the American public have shown an increase from just about 3% of the population in 1991 to over 37% in 1998 (Brevoort, 1998). The North American market for sales of plant medicinals has climbed to about $3 billion/year (Glaser, 1999). Once the domain of health-food and specialty stores, phytomedicines have clearly re-emerged into the mainstream as evidenced by their availability for sale at a wide range of retail outlets, the extent of their advertisement in the popular media, and the recent entrance of several major pharmaceutical companies into the business of producing phytomedicinal products (Brevoort, 1998; Glaser, 1999). No doubt a major contributing factor to this great increase in phytomedicinal use in the United States has been the passing of federal legislation in 1994 (Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act or “DSHEA”) that facilitated the production and marketing of phytomedicinal products (Brevoort, 1998).

14. II. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 1) построение абзаца • Language is one of the most complex forms of higher mental functions in humans. The implementation of different speech types (spoken, written) provided by a number of complex physiological and cognitive mechanisms that are the subject of physiologists, psychologists and psycholinguists (Luria, 1975; Leontiev, 1997; Baars, 2007). The founder of modern linguistics N. Chomsky (1962, 1972) lay down the theoretical foundations for the study of verbal cognitive difficulties recurring in communication between people. A special case of this general issue is the problem of the origin and disambiguation of syntactic ambiguity in the language. • Language and linguistic activity taken in the whole variety of its types (speech, writing, listening and reading) is provided by a set of physiological and cognitive mechanisms. It is one of the most complex forms of higher cognitive functions but still human communication is perplexed by various ambiguities. Consequently, it is the subject of several disciplines including physiology, psychology and psycholinguists (Luria, 1975; Leontiev, 1997; Baars, 2007) and an integrated approach is fruitful for studying the ambiguities and complexities arising in communication. The theoretical foundations for studying cognitive difficulties in communication accounting for their linguistic form (or verbal expression) were laid by N. Chomsky. A special type of this wider issue is the problem of the origin and ways of disambiguating the syntactic ambiguity in language.

15. Первое и последнее предложение • 1. The connectivity pattern of the intraviral and viral-human network revealed three important principles. • Another highly enriched subnetwork involved components of the WNT signaling pathway. • Influenza-host interactions have evolved over countless infections across diverse host species. To capture this complex relationship, we have constructed a first comprehensive map representing the physical and regulatory interactions between influenza virus and its primary human host cell. • These may be required for the formation of viral-host multiprotein complexes. • The mechanism of action is yet to be defined. • These extensive experimental and computational analyses allowed us to assign to each candidate gene a physical, transcriptional, and phenotypic ‘‘fingerprint’’ that reflects its specialized role in the host-pathogen network

16. Current microbiome studies tend to take either top-down or bottom-up perspectives. • In bacteria, current evidence suggests that small DPCs (less than 11 kDa) are repaired via nucleotide excision repair (NER), whereas larger DPCs are repaired by homologous recombination (HR) (Ide et al., 2011; Nakano et al., 2007). • Our data suggest that replication of the adducted strand is delayed compared to the unadducted strand (Figure 1D). • Though Cas9 has been broadly applied in a variety of cellline- and embryo-based experiments, in vivo applications of Cas9 in somatic tissue remain challenging, owing to a combination of factors such as its large transgene size • Connecting top-down and bottom-up strategies to determine specific mechanism, as well as patterns of association, is thus a key goal for the field moving forward. • In summary, there is currently no clear consensus on how DPCs are repaired, especially in vertebrate. • In conclusion, the undamaged strand is replicated well before the DPC-containing strand. • Given these challenges, there is an urgent need for a more versatile system to enable efficient Cas9-mediated genome editing for in vivo applications.

17. This reorientation is not new for the microbial or botanical sciences. In the world of protists, hereditary symbiosis, the inheritance of acquired symbionts is legion. • There are many ways in which the term “individual” is used in biology. Individuals can be defined anatomically, embryologically, hysiologically, immunologically, genetically, or evolutionarily. • The discovery of symbiosis throughout the animal kingdom is fundamentally transforming the classical conception of an insular individuality into one inwhich interactive relationships among speciesblurs the boundaries of the organism and obscures the notion of essential identity. • As such, all classical conceptions of individuality are called into question

18. Перефразировать предложения • (a) Professor Hicks challenged the results of the study. • (b) The figures demonstrate a steady increase in applications. • (c) The institute’s forecast has caused a major debate. • (d) Cost seems to be the principal disadvantage to that method. • (e) They will focus on the first possibility. • (f) After the lecture she tried to explain her theory. • (g) Three topics need to be evaluated. • (h) The structure can be kept but the aim needs to be modified. • (i)OPEC, the oil producers’ cartel, is to reduce output to increase global prices. • (j) The tendency to smaller families has accelerated in the last decade. • a) Professor Hicks questioned the findings of the research. • b) The statistics show a steady expansion in applications. • c) The institute’s prediction has caused a major controversy. • d) Cost seems to be the leading drawback to that system. • e) They will concentrate on the first option. • f) After the lecture she tried to clarify her concept. • g) Three issues need to be examined. • h) The framework can be retained but the goal needs to be altered. • i) OPEC, the oil producers’ cartel, is to cut production to raise global prices. • j) The trend to smaller families has speeded up in the last decade.

19. The structure of a paragraph • Eye movement parameters are also related with structural features of the sentences (Rayner, 1998; Clifton et al., 2007). The number of fixations, their durations, saccadic amplitudes, frequency of regressive saccades (regressions) that are executed ​​during the second path of reading certain phrases are associated with difficulties in interpreting the sentence structure and, consequently, the comprehension of readable the processed text. A substantial number of articles published to date report the influence of a variety of syntactic variables on eye movement parameters (see for a review Clifton et al., 2007). Different types of syntactic ambiguities slow down the reading the ambiguous sentences compared to reading the unambiguous sentences in different languages (English, Spanish, German, French and some others) (Frazier, Rayner, 1982; Cuetos, Mitchell, 1988; Schriefers et al., 1995; Frenck-Mestre, Pynte, 1997; Traxler et al., 2002; Staub, 2010).

20. Structural features and syntactic variables of the sentences also influence the eye movement parameters (Rayner, 1998; Clifton et al., 2007), that is reported in a substantial number of articles published to date (see for a review Clifton et al., 2007). The number of fixations, their durations, saccadic amplitudes, frequency of regressive saccades (regressions) that are executed ​​during the second path of reading certain phrases are associated with certain difficulties in interpreting the sentence structure and, consequently, the comprehension of the processed text. In general, different types of syntactic ambiguities slow down the reading the ambiguous sentences compared to reading the unambiguous sentences in different languages (English, Spanish, German, French and some others) (Frazier, Rayner, 1982; Cuetos, Mitchell, 1988; Schriefers et al., 1995; Frenck-Mestre, Pynte, 1997; Traxler et al., 2002; Staub, 2010).

21. In this article I will briefly emphasise the enormity of the energy/carbon dioxide problem that we face within the coming decades and discuss the contributions that could be made by fuels derived directly from photosynthesis (biofuels) and from developing new technologies based on the successful principles of photosynthesis. I will particularly emphasise the possibility of exploiting the vast amounts of solar energy available to split water to produce dioxygen and the reducing equivalents required to generate fuels such as hydrogen gas, alcohols and methane. ( James Barber) • Мы можем заметить, что предложения достаточно длинные, сложные, но понятные. • Charrs of the genus Salvelinus (Salmonidae, Osteichthyes), inhabiting the Pacific Beringia region, are divided into two closely related complex taxa: S. malma(Dolly Varden) and S. alpinus (Arctic Charr), or S. taranetzisensulato (TaranetsCharr) (Brunner et al., 2001; Oleinik, Skurikhina&Brykov, 2007; Osinov& Pavlov, 1998; Taylor et al., 2008). Sympatric habitations of charrs in the western Alaska are limitedand ( thus the )phylogeny of the taxa was established (McPhail, 1961; Behnke, 1980; McCart, 1980; Reist, Johnson & Carmichael, 1997; Taylor et al., 2008), as well as ( while)the north-eastern Asia charr localizations and phylogenetic relationships were not studied enough (Salmenkova&Omelchenko, 2013).

22. Demand for energy is projected to increase at least twofold by mid-century relative to the present global consumption because of predicted population and economic growth. This demand could be met, in principle, from fossil energy resources, particularly coal. However, the cumulative nature of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions demands that stabilizing the atmospheric CO2 levels to just twice their pre-anthropogenic values by mid-century will be extremely challenging, requiring invention, development and deployment of schemes for carbon-neutral energy production on a scale commensurate with, or larger than, the entire present-day energy supply from all sources combined. Among renewable and exploitable energy resources, nuclear fusion energy or solar energy are by far the largest. However, in both cases, technological breakthroughs are required with nuclear fusion being very difficult, if not impossible on the scale required. On the other hand, 1 h of sunlight falling on our planet is equivalent to all the energy consumed by humans in an entire year. If solar energy is to be a major primary energy source, then it must be stored and despatched on demand to the end user. An especially attractive approach is to store solar energy in the form of chemical bonds as occurs in natural photosynthesis. However, a technology is needed which has a year-round average conversion efficiency significantly higher than currently available by natural photosynthesis so as to reduce land-area requirements and to be independent of food production. Therefore, the scientific challenge is to construct an ‘artificial leaf’ able to efficiently capture and convert solar energy and then store it in the form of chemical bonds of a high-energy density fuel such as hydrogen while at the same time producing oxygen from water. Realistically, the efficiency target for such a technology must be 10 per cent or better. Here, we review the molecular details of the energy capturing reactions of natural photosynthesis, particularly the water-splitting reaction of photosystem II and the hydrogen-generating reaction of hydrogenases. We then follow on to describe how these two reactions are being mimicked in physico-chemical-based catalytic or electrocatalytic systems with the challenge of creating a large-scale robust and efficient artificial leaf technology.

23. Demand for energy is projected to increase – тема плюс проблема fossil energy resources Но! Плохо для атмосферы, требует изобретений, может не хватить however nuclear fusion energy or solar energy Но! требует изобретений, может не хватить technological breakthroughs are required solar energy Сложно, но есть фотосинтез must be stored and despatched on demand to the end user Что я собираюсь рассказать и изучить в данной статье the molecular details of the energy capturing reactions of natural photosynthesis, particularly the water-splitting reaction of photosystem II and the hydrogen-generating reaction of hydrogenases. Therefore, the scientific challenge is to construct an ‘artificial leaf’ able to efficiently capture and convert solar energy and then store it in the form of chemical bonds of a high-energy density fuel such as hydrogen while at the same time producing oxygen from water.

24. Major vs primary • иногда взаимозаменяемы и являются синонимами important • But! • Five primary results were obtained: • ( most important or happening before other things) • Либо первичные – preliminary • Либо основные - major ( very large or important, when compared with other things of a similar kind)

25. Пунктуация • Therefore, I plan to quit smoking. • Nervously, I threw away my cigarettes. • As a result, I feel terrible right now. • After 16 years of smoking, it is not easy to quit. • Having smoked for 16 years, I find it difficult to quit. • Because I have a chronic cough, my doctor recommended that I quit immediately. • "Stop smoking today," she advised

26. However -союз • В начале предложения выделяется запятой • However, • В сложном предложении с дополнительными запятыми • ; however, • В простом предложении как вводное слово • an extremely unpleasant disease which is, however, easy to treat • Не путать с наречием - You can do it however you like.

27. People use 43 muscles when they frown__ however, they use only 28 muscles when they smile. • However___ transition words can also be placed at the beginning of a new paragraph or sentence - not only to indicate a step forward in the reasoning, but also to relate the new material to the preceding thoughts. ; ,

28. Yet-but

29. nonetheless and nevertheless are synonyms and mean the same as however. • however can be used to add an additional observation or piece of information. nevertheless makes a stronger back-reference to what was said earlier, rather than focusing on giving new information. • Essentially, if there is a causal relationship between two sentences, use nevertheless; otherwise use however. • Use instead at the beginning of a sentence to resolve a problem stated in the previous sentence.

30. Both on the other hand and whereas can be used to make a contrast, but whereas gives the reader the idea that the contrast is quite strong. • Whereasis not normally used at the beginning of a sentence. • Do not use on the other hand simply to introduce new information without any sense of contrast. • On the contrary is only used to totally contradict what another author has stated.

31. Oxford comma • Или Harvard comma или serial comma • Please bring me a pencil, eraser,and notebook. • В американском варианте предпочтительнее

32. Steven Pinker min 21- 23,30

33. Zombie-nouns • A large body of experimental data and experience in linguistic studies led to the fundamental assumption on the relation between eye movement parameters and the mental processes associated with analysis of that phrase which reader perceives at the moment • Thus, eye movement parameters and the mental processes associated with analyzing the currently perceived and processed phrase are assumed to be related with each other, that is supported by a large body of experimental data and experience in ___ studies.

34. IV. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3)лексико-грамматические • Adoptive cell transfer ( ACT) imunotherapy is based on the ex vivo selection of tumour-reactive lymphocytes, and their activation and numerical expression before reinfusion to the autologoustumour-bearing host • These findings imply that the rates of ascorbate radical production and its recycling via dehydroascorbatereductase to replenish the ascorbate pool are equivalent at the lower irradiance, but not equivalent at higher irradiance with the rate of ascorbate radical production exceeding its recycling back to ascorbate.

35. IV. Основные проблемы при написании статей – 3)лексико-грамматические Deregulation of physiologic microRNA (miR) activity has been shown to play an important role in tumor initiation and progression, inducing gilomagnesis. Therefore, molecular species that can regulate miR activity on their target RNAs without affecting the expression of relevant mature miRs may play equally relevant roles in cancer.

36. A special case of this general issue is the problem of the origin and disambiguation of syntactic ambiguity in the language. • However the parameters of saccades and fixations indirectly represent the brain language processes because they are closely related with cognitive functions (attention, memory, letter pattern recognition, decision making) providing the recognition and comprehension of written language (Clifton et al., 2007). • The process of recognition of letters that comprise morphemes and words occurs during the fixations.

38. Present Simple • 1) It describes what is now known about the topic and what further research is needed (conclusion) + framing the structure • γδ T cells, αβ T cells, and B cells arethe only cells that use somatic V, D, J gene rearrangement to generate diverse antigen receptors • Further research is needed • Thus, in the light of our findings, we raise the possibility that the activation of cerebral neuronal injury-response pathways, which might occur from a variety of insults, is part of a multiple-hit model of pathogenesis in ALS. • We provide a broad overview of some of the changes that have • occurred in affected species, using biological records collected by national recording schemes to illustrate the various effects of air pollution • we also review the direct and indirect impacts… • Using data from the volunteer-based National Moth Recording Scheme, we provide the first evidence for an indirect association between reductions in air pollution and increases in lichenivorousmoths • This review will focus on the role of inflammation in determining vascular events and the potential use of inflammatory bio-markers for ...

39. It describes what is now known about the topic and what further research is needed (conclusion) • Finally, the most important conclusion of this article is the need for additional investigation of different factors that will shape public perceptions about synthetic biology, its potential benefits, and its potential risks. ( Br E) • It remains to be seen whether such an assignment is correct, but there are several experimental observations suggesting that this anion is a cofactor for the water-splitting reaction of PSII [88–91]. ( Br E) • To make general statements or interpretations about previous research. The focus is on what is known now. Making sensible generalization about that matter . Also worth noting, background information is usually described in relation to the present state of knowledge about a subject. As such, background information is often given in the present tense. • Higher plants and green algae do not contain PsbU or PsbV, but have PsbP and PsbQ as extrinsic lumenal proteins. ( Br E) • To cite the work without mentioning the researcher in the sentence [ 12] • The relaxation of the meta-stable S2 and S3 states to the S1 state in the dark involves recombination reactions • from the accepter side of PSII [26]

40. To introduce an opinion, a piece of evidence • It seems to me that… • There is, however, a suggestion that the PsbP protein has structural features reminiscent of a GTPase activator [123], • Symbiosis is also thought to have been involved in some of the major transitions in the history of life. • To show general agreement with the results of a previous paper ( Barber et al.) • PSII produces approximately 260Gt of dioxygen (Archer & Barber 2004). ( Br E) • Once in the crypts, V. fis­chericells generate the light organ and, through their cell wall peptidoglycans and lipids, induce the loss of the superficial ciliated fields that had facilitated their colonization (Koropatnick, T. A. et al. 2004) ( Am E) ( more often) • It is worth noting here that abstracts are most often given in the present tense, even while they communicate information about other sections that normally use the past (as when an abstract describes key points of a study’s methods). This is because the abstract is primarily to talk about the paper itself, which will remain the same over the passage of time. • 8 ) to describe graphs, tables… • Figure 1.2 shows the geologic nature of most major sources of naturalgas in schematic form (EIA 2010)

41. Br. – Am.

44. In the given paper are not going to discuss the specifics of the taphonomic pathways of Lagerstätten, which are extremely variable (Butterfield, 1994, 1995, 2003, Cai et al., 2012), but instead we will discuss one important question, namely why does decay of dead carcasses stop or delay allowing the fossilization to start before the complete degradation of a body. In the present paper we focus on the reasons why dead carcasses stop decaying and what factors govern the delayed decay allowing the fossilization to start before the complete degradation of a body.

45. Future Simple • Strong predictions about the future • Other satellites, such as the European ERS-1 and the Canadian Radarsat, are scheduled for the period 1990-1995 and will provide radar imagery of the Earth for the monitoring of storms at sea and the tracking of iceberg movement in Arctic waters. • It is estimated that India will be able to produce 288 metric tonnes of bio-diesel by the end of 2012, which will supplement 41.14% of the total demand of diesel fuel consumption in India • Bio-logical products will become cost competitive with chemicals due to ….. • Parents will be able to go and take a test for thousands of genes, all of the genes and geneticpredisposition. • Talking about the theoretical steps • Additionally, post- production processing success will vary with bio-oil composition •  After the mapping using K bio bases, the sequence space will be mapped onto a K-dimensionalfeature space. 

46. Ideas of futurity • Using modality • To be going to ( especially in if/when clauses) • Our work isgoing on to introduce index gradient to the fluidic lens to reduce the aberration inherent to spherical lenses.

48. Present continuous • To stress that an activity is ongoing at the time of writing ( the verbs are usually – work, try, seek, develop, find, conduct, occur, undergoing) • This newfound awareness of the depend­ency of phenotypes on other species and environmen­tal conditions presents additional layers of complexity for evolutionary theory and raises many questions that are being addressed by new research programmes. • To show that some change is in progress at the time of the writing ( become grow, increase decrease, change experience) • Adoptive immunotherapy, or cell therapies, is undergoing a period of growth and enthusiasm following encouraging data regarding its clinical efficacy

49. Forty years later, the accumulation of historic and contemporary species’ distributional data from amateur and professional naturalists is yielding many new opportunities for the study of trends in the abundance and frequency of species in different groups, and allowing us to relate these to changes in the wider environment (Roy et al., 2014; Pococket al., 2015).

50. Present perfect • To introduce a new topic, or an entire paper or report using there has been ( esp- abstracts) • Although therehasbeen an explosive interest in an intellectual capital and a thirst for information on how it might be managed, therehasbeen little written to describe or define the concept • To summarize previous research with general subjects with researchers have found, studies have suggested ( BR E – Present past) • However, somestudieshave provided evidence that cyto c release and caspase activationcan occur before any detectable loss of Atm, implying that PT pore opening may occurdownstream of apoptosomemediated caspase activation (14, 21). ( Am E) • In fact, somestudieshave shown that exposuresduring development lead to persistent changes in the function of other organ systems.