John U. Ogbu

1. John U. Ogbu • Research Question: How do African Americans interpret and respond to cultural and language differences based on the nature of their collectivity or group experience? • Examining educational beliefs and behaviors of different minority groups and why they believe and behave as they do • Cultural-ecological theory: focus on the historical, economic, social, cultural, and language situations of minority groups (adaptations to US society and minority status) • The system • Interpretation and response • School adjustment and academic performance

2. The System and Community • The System: the overall treatment of minorities by U.S. society including instrumental discrimination, relational discrimination, symbolic discrimination • Education policies such as school segregation, unequal funding and staffing of schools • Treatment of minorities in schools such as tracking and low teacher expectations • Unequal rewards for educational accomplishments • The Community: the way a groups perceives and responds to education as a result of their histories in US

3. Explanations for the Achievement Gap • Viewing education as a formula for preparation for contemporary society vs. viewing education as a process of assimilation and hegemony • Presence in society as a product of choice vs. force • Immigrant status (voluntary) vs. non-immigrant status (involuntary) • People’s understandings of the social reality that guides their thoughts and actions • These understandings support their behaviors and performances in school

4. Voluntary Minorities Positive dual frame of reference Folk theory: hard work, following the rules, and getting a good education result in employment and success Trusting relationships with whites and white-controlled institutions Different collective identity Children held responsible for achievement Involuntary Minorities Negative dual frame of reference Folk theory: discrimination is institutionalized and cannot be overcome through hard work and a good education Distrusting relationships with whites and white-controlled institutions Oppositional collective identity Schools and teachers held responsible for achievement Adaptations and Education

5. Conclusions • Involuntary minorities are doing less well in school than voluntary minorities • The system is responsible for some of these results • Community forces and perceptions of education (involuntary minorities) are responsible for some of these results • Some Recommendations: • Black community must help their children develop better academic orientation and effort (trust and edu programs) • Schools develop academic identities for black students through clubs that recognize achievement • Schools emphasize learning the curriculum for future jobs rather than as a threat to one’s identity • Schools need to address low teacher expectations

6. Ima- Testing the American Dream • Model-Minority Myth: Asian students’ academic achievements surpass other students of color and many times white students due to family support and cultural beliefs that emphasize education • Implications • Poor schooling outcomes are a result of dysfunctional family practices • The source and therefore the remedy of the problem is not the schools themselves

7. Behind the Model-Minority Myth • Significant groups of Asian immigrants are at risk of school failure (Specifically Southeast Asian Refugees) • Southeast Asian refugees as high achievers but many fail to graduate and attain English fluency • Cambodian Refugee and Latino drop-out rates are similar • 2/3 of Southeast Asian students are limited English Proficiency and therefore in lower tracks • Southeast Asian refugees are more likely to enter postsecondary school but less likely to be employed or in school 3 years after graduation • Surge in Asian gang activity in SD

8. Asian Immigrants and Education in San Diego • Asian students make up 19% of enrollment in SDCS (2/3 foreign born) • Lack of adequate responses to newcomers in schools • Lack of bilingual programs, bilingual personnel, primary language materials resulting in unsuccessful English submersion programs • Lack of proper pedagogic techniques that address students’ cultures • Lack of capacity to address the unique concerns of refugees • Lack of funding to make the proper adjustements

9. History of Women’s Education in US • Girls not granted any form of access to education until 1767 (Providence Rhode Island) • Women’s education focused on transforming girls into strong, intellectually able mothers (professionalizing motherhood) • 1820’s High Schools for girls • Coeducation as a result of financial necessity • 1850’s Miner Normal School for Colored Girls • Feminization of Teaching

10. Women and Higher Education • 1833 Oberlin admits white men and women as well as men and women of color • Ladies Courses • Duties of female students on campus: Wash men’s clothes, care for their rooms, serve men at the tables, listening to orations, general silence • Elite Universities still opposed admittance of women • Harassment and ridicule • Maculinities and Femininities • Devaluing of the system of higher education • 1901 Johns Hopkins Medical School opened to women • Increased opposition: craniology, impacts of study and competition on reproduction

11. Social Change? • Until the 1970’s women were funneled into 4 occupation areas: secretarial, nursing, teaching, mothering • 1972 Title IX – sex discrimination is schools as illegal • 1978 Federal funding for sex equity research • 1980’s Backlash • Women in education today? • Women in math and the “hard sciences” • Women as tenured faculty? • Commensurate pay between men and women with the same degrees?