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Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence. OUTLINE. Biological theories Hall Organismic theories Freud, Erikson, and Piaget Learning theories Skinner’s Behaviorists Social learning theories Sociological theories Historical and anthropological approaches. 1. 生物学取向的青少年发展理论.

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Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

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  1. Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

  2. OUTLINE • Biological theories • Hall • Organismic theories • Freud, Erikson, and Piaget • Learning theories • Skinner’s Behaviorists • Social learning theories • Sociological theories • Historical and anthropological approaches

  3. 1. 生物学取向的青少年发展理论 • 从个体生理的发生发展过程出发,认为人的心理发展是生理成熟的结果。个体发展表现出的类型差异和年龄差异是由生物遗传因素决定的,不受或极少受环境的影响 • 个体生理和心理成熟所经历的阶段对每个人来说具有普遍性(universal/common to people in different cultures and social contexts)

  4. 霍尔的复演说 • 个体心理发展是一系列或多或少复演种族进化历史的过程,个体心理的发展层次与种系发生的进化层次在本质上是对应的、平行的 • 个体心理发展完全由生物因素决定 • 心理发展按照一个普遍的、固定的模式进行,极少受环境的影响 • 与人类物种进化的历史相对应,将个体心理发展划分为四个阶段:婴幼儿期、儿童期、少年期和青年期

  5. 霍尔的复演说 • 婴幼儿期(0-4岁) • 复演了种族进化的动物阶段;主要活动方式是爬行;感知觉能力发展并获得感知运动技能以进行必要的自我保护 • 儿童期(4-8岁) • 与进化史上的渔猎期相对应。主要活动方式是捉迷藏、使用玩具器械、钻洞、搭建临时小屋或其他避身场所 • 少年期(8-12岁) • 复演了农业时期的生活。个体想亲自实践、训练自己,特别是想学语言、数学、绘画、写作、音乐等

  6. 霍尔的复演说 • 青年期(12-25岁) • 与两千年前人类历史处在骚乱的过渡阶段相一致 • 个体从青春期向成年期发展过程中,其心理动荡起伏、充满了矛盾冲突 “狂风暴雨”(storm and stress) • P32-33 • 霍尔认为青少年在这一时期的发展一方面是复演了种族的进化历史,另一方面也是生物生长发展的自然规律。在矛盾和冲突之中,个体的心灵可以在尽量大的范围内探索人类的经验,不断地达到新的成熟,以更好地适应生活

  7. 霍尔的复演说 • 评价: • 撰写了第一本青少年心理发展的著作,首次将发展心理学的研究范围拓展到青少年期,开始了青少年心理发展的科学研究 • 从各个领域(青少年发展的生理基础、社会基础、青少年的品德不良与犯罪等)对青少年进行了研究,对后人研究青少年的心理发展具有重要的指导作用 • 复演的思想使我们了解到个体心理发展在一定程度上重复着动物和人类心理发展的历史,但是将个体发展史与种族发展史完全等同起来是错误的,在认识到生物因素对个体心理发展的影响的同时,不应忽视社会文化环境和个体主观能动性的作用

  8. 格塞尔的成熟论 • 个体生理发展与心理发展经历了一个有规律的顺序过程,这一过程由物种和生物的进化顺序决定 • 个体发展变化的本质是结构性的,基本结构的变化在生物因素(如成熟)的影响下有规律地发展着,从而控制着外显行为特征的差异 • 环境只是起着支持和沟通各发展阶段的作用,而不能产生或改变发展的基本形式和顺序 • 没有足够的成熟就没有真正的发展变化,在结构得以发展之前,特殊的训练是没有多少成效的 • 双生子爬梯实验

  9. 格塞尔的成熟论 • 青少年期是指从童年向成人的过渡时期,具体是指十一岁到二十一岁,其中前五年尤为重要 • 对165名个体进行长达12年研究,描述了每个年龄青少年的生理成熟、兴趣和行为特征(P34-35) • 如,11岁时,个体开始出现生理变化,并引起心理变化,如变得好冲动、情绪经常不稳定、与同龄人吵架、顶撞父母等 • 16岁开始出现稳定状态,焦躁被活泼乐观所代替,内心自主性、情感稳定性、爱好交际和向往未来的特点都大大增强了

  10. 格塞尔的成熟论 • 评价: • 格塞尔从有机体内部的过程出发,提出其发展的成熟论,尤其是其经典实验使我们认识到生理成熟对个体心理发展的重要作用 • 但生理成熟只是为心理的发展提供了一种可能性,而要将这种可能性转变成现实则取决于环境、教育等外部条件和个体的主观能动性

  11. 2.精神分析学派的青少年发展理论 • 精神分析学派主要从心理发展的动力来分析、探讨青少年心理发展的一般规律

  12. 弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 将无意识作为研究对象,从人格结构入手来探讨心理发生、发展的深层动因 • 心理发展的基本动力是性本能——力比多(libido) • 人格结构: • 伊底、自我和超我 • 力比多贮存在伊底里。它是无意识的、非道德的。遵循快乐原则活动,以追求快乐和满足本能的需要、欲望为目的

  13. 弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 根据力比多集中投放的部位不同,将个体心理发展划分为五个阶段,即心理性欲发展理论 • 口唇期(0-1岁) • 肛门期(1-3岁) • 性器期(3-5岁) • 潜伏期(5-12岁) • 青春期(11-20岁)

  14. 弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 青春期 • 随着青春期生理变化的发生,儿童期(潜伏期)的平静状态被打破 • 俄底普斯情结再次出现 • 与异性接触 • 摆脱父母的权威 • 青春期俄底普斯情结的解决不好,可能会出现同性恋 • 青春期生理变化带来行为变化及适应困难,青少年易产生精神机能障碍

  15. 安娜·弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 认为青春期在个性形成中起更重要的作用,更多地对青少年发展的动力问题进行了研究 • 在探讨青春期的发展,更多地强调伊底、自我和超我间的关系 • 青春期随着性功能的成熟,伊底的力量超过超我,先前建立起来的伊底与自我间的平衡被打破,从而产生了新的内在冲突 • 超我通过逐渐内化父母或权威的道德价值观念也得到了发展,自我与当前超我中内化的道德标准发生冲突 • 青春期的任务之一是重新获得内在平衡

  16. 安娜·弗洛伊德的精神分析理论 • 青春期再次产生俄底普斯情结 • 防御机制: • 禁欲、理智化 • 安娜认为伊底、自我和超我可以达到真正的协调与平衡,这种平衡将促进青少年健康发展

  17. 埃里克森的心理社会发展理论 • 重视社会文化因素对发展的影响 • 将心理发展阶段扩展至老年,提出了心理社会发展阶段理论(psychosocial theory of human development) • 每一阶段都有一个普遍的发展任务 • 这些任务是由成熟与社会文化环境、社会期望间不断产生的冲突所规定的 • 心理社会发展阶段见表1

  18. 表1 埃里克森的心理社会发展阶段

  19. 埃里克森的心理社会发展理论 • 由于身体发育并逐渐成熟、性意识的觉醒,青少年特别关注自己的身体形象 • 社会对青少年提出了新的要求,给青少年分配了新的角色,要求青少年承担新的责任 • 形式运算思维使能够在一切可能的和可以想象得到的关系中对个人的、职业的、性别的和意识形态等方面所承担的义务做出越来越窄的选择(埃里克森,1998) • 青少年心理发展的主要任务——同一性的获得,以及完成这一任务的可能性

  20. 埃里克森的心理社会发展理论 • 自我同一性(self identity) • 与他人的分离感 • 自我本身的统一(时空连续性) • 自我同一性的发展不仅是青春期才开始出现的,而是每个阶段都存在的 • 青少年期个体自我同一性危机的解决依赖于以前各阶段危机的解决程度 • 不能成功获得自我同一感,就会产生同一性混乱或消极的自我同一性

  21. 3. 行为主义和社会学习理论的青少 年发展观 • 未专门研究发展问题

  22. 华生的行为主义理论 • 环境决定论 • 否认遗传的作用 • 片面夸大环境和教育的作用

  23. 斯金纳的操作行为主义理论 • 行为的强化控制原理 • 人类从事的绝大多数有意义的行为都是操作性的 • 操作性行为的结果作为强化,使得该种行为得以继续保持 • 遗传与环境的关系 • 认为应尽可能同时考虑遗传和环境的影响 • 认为人类的根据行为的结果而进行学习的能力是从遗传能力中获得的重要一部分 • 心理发展上持非阶段的观点,认为发展是一个连续的、渐进的过程,不存在明显的、质的不同

  24. 斯金纳的操作行为主义理论 • 认为结构主义者仅限于描述发展过程中各阶段的特点是不正确的,心理学学家应在发展的过程中来研究各个阶段的心理规律 • 此外,斯金纳还重视理论的应用

  25. 班杜拉的社会学习理论 • 主要探讨社会如何影响个体使其掌握社会规范、向着社会要求的方向发展的 • 认为不仅环境决定人的行为,人的认知因素也影响个体的行为,同时人们也可以通过行为来改变环境,即行为、环境和认知因素间存在相互作用 • 观察学习是人类主要的学习方式

  26. 班杜拉的社会学习理论 • 观察学习(observational learning) • 又称替代性学习(vicarious learning) • 通过观察他人(榜样)的行为及其结果而进行的学习 • 直接强化、替代性强化和自我强化 • 注意、保持、动作复现、强化和动机过程 • 社会化研究 • 攻击性、性、自我强化、亲社会行为等

  27. 图 1 观察学习过程

  28. 班杜拉的社会学习理论 • 评价: • 班杜拉的社会学习理论发掘了被前人所忽视的一种学习形式——观察学习 • 在研究的过程中,班杜拉吸收了认知心理学的研究成果,强调认知因素和社会因素在学习中的重要性 • 其理论建立在设计精巧、操作严密的实验室实验的基础之上,有较强的说服力,而且也引导后人在此基础上进行了大量的研究 • 但其实验的外部效度,即推广性受到了一定的限制;基本上还是环境决定论的观点

  29. 4. Lewin’s Field Theory • 在格式塔心理学(Gestalt Psychology)理论的基础上,将拓扑学的原理运用于心理学,试图用数学方式来处理心理学问题 • 人的心理活动是在一定的心理场或生活空间中进行的 • “Behavior (B) is a function of the Person (P) and the Environment (E), i.e. B=F(P, E)” • The sum total of all environmental and personal factors in interaction is called the “life space” (LSp) or “psychological space” , i.e. B=F(LSp)

  30. 4. Lewin’s Field Theory • 心理场包括个体和环境 • person:individual’s physical and mental factors, including physical status, needs, motives, and goals etc. • environment:个体意识到的或虽未意识到但对个人心理活动有影响的准物理、准社会和准概念事实组成的心理环境(environment conceived by an individual) • “我们不是在讨论警察对于孩子的实际的法律的和社会的权威,而是在讨论孩子所看到的警察的权威” (勒温, 1997)

  31. 4. Lewin’s Field Theory • 每一心理事件或行为既取决于个体的状态,也取决于环境,还取决于两者的相互作用

  32. Figure 1 An individual’s life space in a conflict situation

  33. 4. Lewin’s Field Theory • Actual behavior would be determined by the strength of the forces, including positive or negative valence of goals, forces of barriers, etc.

  34. 4. Lewin’s Field Theory • Evaluation: • Since person and environment are seen as a constellation of interrelated factors, this theory achieves harmony among the many aspects of development by combining biological, sociological, environmental, and psychological factors in the concept of life space • As a consequence of the emphasis on the combination of a person’s biological, psychological, and environmental factors, Lewin preferred to explain development in terms of individual, rather than in terms of group

  35. Lewin’s Ideas about development • 从场论出发描述并解释了心理与行为发展变化的动力 • 认为个体发展(development of individual)的一个主要特征是随年龄的增长,生活空间中尚未分化、较松散的区域开始逐渐分化,且在分化的同时个体对各子领域也进行着重新建构 • 分化有快有慢

  36. Lewin’s Ideas about development • In infancy, a child’s life space is unstructured and undifferentiated, and the child depends on outside help and external structuring of the environment by other people • As the child groups up, his/her life space increases in structure and differentiation, and the child learns to be more and more self-reliant

  37. Lewin’s Ideas about development • Lewin held the notion that an individual’s space of free movement is limited by “a. what is forbidden to a person; b. what is beyond his/her abilities” (Lewin, 1936, p. 217) • As the child matures, fewer restrictions were placed on his/her freedom to move, in addition, the ability to deal effectively with the increased life space grows

  38. Figure 2 Comparison of the life space of free movement of child(a) and adult(b)

  39. Lewin’s Ideas about development • Lack of freedom of movement will place restriction on the child’s attempt to expand his/her life space, and psychological rigidity may result • However, if the life space, especially in early childhood, remains unstructured, the personality will lack integration and organization, as a result, the individual will develop personality confusion • So that, not only independence and freedom are needed for positive development, but also certain kind of dependency is necessary

  40. Figure 3 The space of free movement of the adolescent • As the adolescent’s life space increases, many more regions become potentially accessible • But often it is not at all clear to adolescents whether or not they are supposed to enter these regions ‘uncertainty’

  41. Lewin’s Ideas about development • Adolescents are not sure whether they are allowed or forbidden to enter certain regions • The uncertainty or difficulty arises because these regions are no longer “beyond their ability”, and these regions are not explicitly allowed nor explicitly forbidden • Consequently, the definition and redefinition of the space of free movement in the adolescents’ life space may take innumerable hours of discussion and argumentation between them and their parents

  42. Lewin’s Ideas about development • Differences between developmental stages as a function of increasing age manifest themselves in the following ways, i.e. Lewin’s view of point about developmental stages • 1. An increase in the scope of the life space in regard to • a. What is part of the psychological present • b. The time perspective in the direction of the psychological past and the psychological future • 2. An increasing differentiation of every level of the life space into a multitude of social relations and area of activities

  43. Lewin’s Ideas about development • Differences between developmental stages as a function of increasing age manifest themselves in the following ways, i.e. Lewin’s view of point about developmental stages • 3. An increasing organization • 4. A change in the general fluidity or rigidity of the life space

  44. Figure 4 the life space of two developmental stages • life space of a younger child (a) and life space of a older child(b) in regard to the present situation, the reality-irreality dimension, and the time perspective

  45. Lewin’s Ideas about development • From figure 4, you can see: • 1. The main difference between young child’s life space and that of adolescent’s is the increased differentiation • Change in the differentiation of the LSp occurs slowly at certain times and more rapidly at other times • Slow differentiation results in relatively harmonious periods of development, while rapid changes are more likely to result in periods of crisis • Adolescence is characterized by a relatively rapid change in the structure of the LSp, and changes occur in several different domain: cognitive, physical, emotional, and interpersonal

  46. Lewin’s Ideas about development • From figure 4, you can see: • 2. The time perspective has expanded • The time perspective of the older child includes an awareness of a more distant future and a more distant past • Which has far-reaching consequences for education, the curriculum, and vocational planning • 3. The reality-irreality level also takes on new dimensions • Better in distinguish between reality and irreality

  47. Lewin’s Ideas about adolescent development • Fundamental to Lewin’s theory of development is the view that: • adolescence is a period of transition during which adolescents must change their group membership

  48. Lewin’s Ideas about adolescent development • Adolescent is experiencing biological and physical changes, which make he or she is not sure who he/she is, child or adult? • People around the adolescent, e.g. parents and teachers, may treat the adolescent at one time like a child or like an adult at another time • Certain childish forms of behavior are no longer acceptable (such as washing clothes by mother), and at the same time, some of the adult forms of behavior are not yet permitted (such as car driving)

  49. Figure 5 The adolescent as a marginal man • During childhood and adulthood, the ‘adults’ (A) and ‘children’(C) are viewed as relatively separated groups • Adolescent belonging to a group (Ad), which can be viewed as an overlapping field of the children’s and the adults’ group belonging to both of them, or as standing between them, not belonging to either one

  50. Lewin’s Ideas about adolescent development • The adolescent is in a state of “social locomotion”, moving through an unstructured social and psychological field • Goals are no longer clears, and the paths to them are ambiguous and full of uncertainties • Since the adolescent does not have a clear understanding of his or her social status, expectations, obligations, or how to cope with rejection, his or her behavior reflects this uncertainty

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