Francis Cecil Sumner 1895-1954

1. Francis Cecil Sumner1895-1954

2. Overview of Presentation • Background Information • Historical Antecedents • Zeitgeist • Professional Obstacles and Struggles • Experiments, Research, and Clinical Data Supporting his Theory and Ideas • Strengths and Weaknesses of his Theory and Ideas • Influence on Events and Ideas in his Time and on Later Events and Ideas in Psychology

3. Background Information • Francis Cecil Sumner was born in Pine Bluff, Arkansas on December 7, 1895. • His elementary education was through school systems in Virginia and New Jersey. • His secondary education was self-taught with the help of his parents. • In 1911, when he was 15 years old, he submitted a written examination and was permitted to enroll at Lincoln University. • He graduated magna cum laude in 1915.

4. Background Information • Sumner was accepted into Clark University through the help of his good friend G. Stanley Hall. • In 1916, he graduated valedictorian of his class with a Bachelor’s Degree in English. • He then returned to Lincoln University as a graduate student and professor of German and psychology. • He received his Master’s Degree in 1917.

5. Background Information • Soon after graduation, he received word that he had been accepted to Clark University with a senior scholarship in psychology. • Sumner put his education on hold in 1917 and 1918 to serve in the United States military in World War I. • He returned to Clark University in 1919. • On June 14, 1920, he became the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.

6. Background Information • Sumner taught at Wilberforce Southern University and West Virginia Collegiate Institute before becoming chairman of the psychology department at Howard University. • Howard University gained a reputation for providing African Americans with the highest quality of education in psychology. • In fact, it became known as the Black Harvard.

7. Background Information • Sumner married twice, but did not have children. • On January 12, 1954, he died of a heart attack while shoveling snow. • He is known as the Father of Black American Psychology.

8. Historical Antecedents • William Edward Burghardt DuBois challenged the views of Booker T. Washington. • He believed that “education among Blacks must first focus upon educating the best of the race [who would then] be in a position to begin to uplift the masses.” • Inspired a “Negro Renaissance” • Intellectuals, novelists, and poets built racial pride and hope through writing.

9. Historical Antecedents • African American historians criticized Caucasian historians for presenting a biased view of history by omitting the contributions of African Americans. • G. Stanley Hall advocated for the inclusion of minorities and women in Clark University.

10. Zeitgeist • African Americans considered inferior in intelligence and morality • Misuse of intelligence tests to prove the inferiority of racial and ethnic minorities • In 1921, United States president Warren Harding said that social equality between African Americans and Caucasians would never be possible due to “fundamental, inescapable, and eternal differences of race.”

11. Zeitgeist • Segregation • Sumner had a separate table in the dining hall of Clark University. • African Americans were excluded from educational, occupational, and military opportunities. • They were restricted to agricultural and vocational trades.

12. Admission to Schools • American University and the University of Illinois denied him admission to graduate school. • Instead, he attended Lincoln University and Clark University.

13. World War I • Drafted as an infantry sergeant • Proficient in foreign language and could have been a valuable translator or code breaker • Instead, he constructed railroads in the 808 Pioneer Infantry.

14. Controversies • Sumner wrote two controversial letters to the Worcester Gazette. • Discussed the oppression of African Americans • Criticized how the United States viewed Germany after World War I • Advocated for school segregation on the basis of the inferiority of African Americans • Conducted controversial research on racial issues

15. Research • Racial equality • Attitudes regarding justice for African Americans • Goal was for justice to be administered more democratically

16. Sumner and Sumner (1931) • Impact of race on mental health • Participants • 593 college students • 400 Caucasian • 193 African American • 70 psychoneurotic people

17. Measures • The Mental Hygiene Inventory • 170 questions • Psychoneurotic symptoms • Childhood • Adulthood

18. Results • Caucasians and African Americans had an approximately equal amount of psychoneurotic symptoms in childhood and adulthood. • For most psychoneurotic symptoms, the African Americans resembled the Caucasians more than the psychoneurotic people.

19. Sumner and Campbell (1939) • Attitudes regarding justice for African Americans

20. Participants • 431 employed adults • 215 Caucasian • 216 African American • 1,082 college students • 443 Caucasian • 639 African American

21. Measures • Questionnaire • 118 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors, defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc. • Taken from newspapers, books, and conversations • Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from absolutely true to absolutely false

22. Results • For 24 of the statements, at least 67% of the participants were in agreement about whether it was true or false. • The participants were not in favor of the judicial system being abolished. • However, they wanted it to be modified so that it was fairer.

23. Sumner and Lee (1941) • Similarities between African American dyads • Participants • 110 African American college students • 15 pairs of male-male friends • 15 pairs of female-female friends • 15 male-female couples

24. Measures • Intelligence • Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability, Higher Form • Socioeconomic status • Simms Score Card • Interest-attitude • Pressey Interest-Attitude Test

25. Measures • Personality traits • Bernreuter Personality Inventory • Skin color • Color chart • Nine equally spaced shades • Ranged from white to black

26. Results • African American college students who are male choose friends who are similar in interest-attitude and skin color. • African American college students choose partners who are similar in socioeconomic status, skin color, and age.

27. Sumner and Shaed (1945) • Attitudes regarding justice for African Americans

28. Participants • 906 college students • 246 Caucasian • 660 African American • 193 adults • 42 Caucasian • 151 African American

29. Measures • Questionnaire • 56 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors, defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc. • Taken from the conversations of African Americans • Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from absolutely true to absolutely false

30. Results • The correlation of responses between the Caucasian and African American college students was .78. • The correlation of responses between the Caucasian and African Americans adults was .60.

31. Sumner and Clark (1945) • Estimates of the intelligence and wholesomeness of personality of African Americans

32. Participants • Subjects • 7 African American college students • 2 male • 5 female • Varied in skin color • Judges • 52 African American adults • 10 male • 42 female

33. Measures • Intelligence • Otis Higher Examination From D • Otis Higher Examination From B • Army Alpha Form 9 • The subjects were ranked according to their intelligence. • Personality traits • Bernreuter Personality Inventory

34. Procedure • Name • Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness of personality • 10 minute interview • Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness of personality

35. Results • Before the interview, intelligence rankings were correlated with: • Looks .61 • Skin color - .32 • After the interview, intelligence rankings were correlated with: • Self-sufficiency .82 • Skin color .00

36. Results • Before the interview, wholesomeness of personality rankings were correlated with: • Looks .57 • Skin color - .18 • After the interview, wholesomeness of personality rankings were correlated with: • Self-sufficiency .68 • Skin color - .25

37. Results • The judges could not accurately estimate the intelligence of the subjects before or after the interview. • Estimates of intelligence and wholesomeness of personality were influenced negatively or not at all by skin color.

38. Strengths • Suggested better higher educational facilities for African Americans • Challenged his students to work hard

39. Weaknesses • “Philosophy of Negro education” • Condoned Booker T. Washington’s sentiment that higher education for African Americans should be limited to agricultural and vocational training • Agreed with G. V. Cools that education for African Americans should include character building

40. Weaknesses • “Morale and the Negro college” • Stated that only a very small fraction of African Americans should receive higher education • Suggested that they attend schools specifically for African Americans

41. Influence Kenneth Clark • Sumner’s most famous former student • Planned to attend medical school after graduating from Howard University • Changed his mind after taking an introductory psychology class with Sumner • “To hell with medical school. [Psychology] is the discipline for me.”

42. Kenneth Clark • “Professor Sumner had rigorous standards for his students. And he didn't just teach psychology. He taught integrity. And although he led the way for other Blacks in psychology, Sumner would permit no nonsense about there being anything like a ‘Black psychology,’ any more than he would have allowed any nonsense about a ‘Black astronomy.’ In this and in many other ways, Sumner was a model for me. In fact, he has always been my standard when I evaluate myself.”

43. Kenneth Clark • Wrote and edited books on racial issues • Prejudice and Your Child (1955) • Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (1965) • Relevant War Against Poverty (1968) • Negro American (1968) • Pathos of Power (1974) • First African American president of the American Psychological Association (1970-1971) • President of the Psychological Study of Social Issues

44. Kenneth Clark • Clark and his wife researched the effects of prejudice, discrimination, and segregation on the developing child. • Their work was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court case that ended school segregation, Brown v. Board of Education. • Sumner died before the ruling. • However, he was said to have been proud that one of his students played such a significant role in what is considered by many to be the most important Supreme Court decision of the twentieth century.

45. Influence • Sawyer (2000) • Sumner had a hidden agenda in advocating for school segregation on the basis of the inferiority of African Americans. • Recognized the futility of arguing for equal, integrated education • Placated Caucasians to receive economic and political support for African American education

46. Summary of Presentation • First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology • Known as the Father of Black American Psychology • Encountered prejudice and discrimination at a time when African Americans were punished for speaking out

47. Summary of Presentation • Established an independent psychology department at Howard University, where he was an influential teacher • Advocated for school segregation, but his intent was to provide higher quality education for African Americans • Conducted research on racial issues, including the administration of justice

48. Exam Questions Which two colleges denied Sumner admission? (a). American University and the University of Illinois (b). Lincoln University and the University of Illinois (c). American University and West Virginia Collegiate Institute (d). The University of Oklahoma and Auburn University (e). Clark University and Howard University

49. Exam Questions In his articles “Philosophy of Negro education” and “Morale and the Negro college,” Sumner stated that: (a). African Americans are inferior to Caucasians. (b). Education for African Americans should include character building. (c). Higher education should be offered to a very small fraction of African Americans. (d). School segregation should continue. (e). All of the above

50. Exam Questions Sumner’s most famous former student is: (a). Frederick Payne Watts (b). Kenneth Bancroff Clark (c). Horace Mann Bond (d). Charles Henry Turner (e). Angie King