Comparative Methods in Social Sciences , I

1. Comparative Methods in Social Sciences, I Kazimierz M. Slomczynski & Irina Tomescu-Dubrow

2. Comparative methods – purpose The purpose of comparative research is, as in the case of all scientific research, to test hypotheses. Hypothesis is a statement, stipulated within a given theory, about the relationship between variables (constructs) defined on some objects (units of observation) within a causal framework (time and sequencing). In comparative sociology hypotheses deal with space and/or time.

3. Space and time Space: Cross-national studies involve, explicitly or implicitly, nations (states, countries, societies) as units of observation and at least one variable is defined on the national (country, society) level. Time: In historical studies the same units of observations are compared through time

4. Comparative methods Comparative methods refer specifically to the methodology of comparing “something” through space and/or time. Generally, comparative methods for cross-national research and historical research do not differ very much.

5. Comparative methods and comparative sociology Clarification: • Most sociology is within-country, present-time sociology. • Comparative methods are specific in that they address problems inherent in cross-national and/or historical studies. • Cross-national and/or historical studies constitute comparative sociology. As it will be argued comparative sociology is a sub-discipline of sociology as such.

6. Traditions of comparative sociology Karl Marx (1818-1883) and his work (Capital, 1883) on evolutionary processes of economic systems (cross-national and historical). Max Weber (1864-1920) and his work on The Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism, 1905, (historical and cross-national). Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and his workSuicide (1897) as an example of quantitative studies on nations' characteristics. In his Rules of Sociological Methods, 1885, Durkheim insists that comparative sociology is not a particular branch of sociology; it is sociology itself.

7. Does comparative sociology constitute a paradigm? “A paradigm is a fundamental image of the subject matter within a science. It serves to define what should be studied, what questions should be asked, how they should be asked, and what rules should be followed in interpreting the answers obtained.” (Ritzer, Sociology: A Multiple Paradigm Science, 1980: 7) Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolution (1962)

8. Comparative sociology Questions: • -- what should be studied? • -- what questions should be asked? • -- how they should be asked? • -- what rules should be followed?

9. Melvin Kohn's questions In whose interest is cross-national research? Is cross-national research distinctly different from research that compares social classes, or ethnic groups, or genders in a single country? Why put the emphasis on cross-national? How many nations are needed for rigorous cross-national analysis? What are the costs of doing cross-national research? 6. What role does history play in cross-national interpretation?

10. Stages of Social Research FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM & THEORETICAL MODEL Chose variables and specify hypothesis PREPARATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN Define population and select sample. Develop instruments MEASUREMENT SAMPLING DATA COLLECTION DATA ORGANIZATION AND PROCESSING ANALYSES AND INTERPRETATION Make decisions about the fit of data and theory. Results are communicated to an audience. (Confirm or reject your initial theory)

11. Typology of approaches Hypothesis testing approach in cross-national research The proposed typology takes into account the dependent variable (explanandum; outcome) and fits to it independent variable(s) (explanans; causes).

12. Typology of cross-national research Crucial question: What is the level of observation on which the dependent variable is defined? For simplicity: DV describes either countries (macro) or individuals (micro)

13. Typology of cross-national research Types of explanations: I. Macro-macro II. Micro-micro III. Macro-micro

14. Macro-macro, I.a • Type of explanation: macro-macro. Both dependent variable and independent variable(s) are defined for a country as a whole. This refers to the Country-Level Data, CLD. Quantitative Studies on Nations' Characteristics 1a. Positional characteristics: Matrix A = aij where a is a value of variable j in country i.

16. Macro-macro, I.b Studies of the World System and its Elements 1b. Relational characteristics: Matrix B = bkl where b is a value of a variable showing the relationship between country k and country l

18. Micro-micro Type of explanation: micro-micro. The dependent variable is micro (on individual level) and independent variable(s) is also micro (on individual level), but research is done in separate countries and the results are compared. This refers to the Individual-Level Data, ILD.

19. Survey research in three countries Matrix A = aij where a is a value of variable j for individual i. Matrix B = bij where b is a value of variable j for individual i. Matrix C = cij where c is a value of variable j for individual i.

21. Macro-micro Type of explanation: macro-micro. The dependent variable is micro (on individual level) and independent variable(s) is macro (on country-level). This combines ILD and CLD Matrix A = aijk where a is a value of variable j for individual i in country k.