Nature and Nurture: The Interaction of Hereditary and Environmental Factors in Developmental Psychology

1. Chapter 9 Development

2. MODULE 27: Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors? What is the nature of development before birth? What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy?

3. Developmental Psychology Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life Nature-nurture issue: Degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior Behavioral geneticists - Study the effects of heredity on behavior

4. Figure 1 - Characteristics Influenced Significantly by Genetic Factors

5. Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture Genetically control laboratory animals and place in varied environments Findings from animal research provide important information that cannot be obtained for ethical reasons by using human participants Identical twins: Genetically identical

6. Developmental Research Techniques Cross-sectional research: Compares people of different ages at the same point in time Longitudinal research: Investigates behavior as participants age Change in behavior over time

7. Developmental Research Techniques Sequential research: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time

8. The Basics of Genetics Chromosomes: Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information Genes: Smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted Composed of sequences of DNA

9. The Basics of Genetics The human genome project Scientists mapped the specific location and sequence of every human gene

10. The Earliest Development Germinal period Zygote: New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm First two weeks Embryonic period Embryo: Developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs Weeks 2 through 8

11. The Earliest Development Fetal period Fetus: Developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth Movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them Age of viability: Point at which it can survive if born prematurely About prenatal age 22 weeks Sensitive periods - Time when organisms are susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli

12. The Earliest Development Preterm infants - Born before week 38 At higher risk for illness, future problems, and death

13. Genetic influences on the fetus Phenylketonuria (PKU) Sickle-cell Anemia Tay-Sachs Disease Down Syndrome

14. Prenatal Environmental Influences Teratogens: Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect Mother’s Nutrition and Illness Mother’s Emotional State and Use of Drugs Alcohol Nicotine Use

15. Figure 3 - Environmental Factors and Development

16. Alternative Paths to Conception In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) • Surrogate mother

17. MODULE 28: Infancy and Childhood What are the major competencies of newborns? What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood? How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?

18. The Extraordinary Newborn Neonate: A newborn child Neonate’s strange appearance Misshapen head Vernix - White greasy covering, for protection before birth Lanugo - Soft fuzz, over the entire body

19. The Extraordinary Newborn Reflexes: Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Gag reflex Startle reflex Babinski reflex

20. Figure 1 - Voluntary Movements

21. Development of the Senses: Taking in the World Visual abilities grow rapidly after birth Habituation: Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus Distinguishing sounds Native vs. foreign language Distinguishing taste and smell

22. Infancy Through Childhood Physical development During first year of life children typically triple birth weight Height increases by about half

23. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Attachment: The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual Konrad Lorenz Imprinting - Behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed Harry Harlow’s study on attachment “Wire monkey versus cloth monkey”

24. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Assessing attachment Ainsworth strange situation Securely attached children Avoidant children Ambivalent children Disorganized-disoriented children

25. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World The father’s role Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly Nature of attachment to children can be similar to that of mother’s

26. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Social relationships with peers Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately Helps children learn physical and emotional self-control

27. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World The consequences of child care outside the home High-quality care centers can positively impact child Low-quality child care provides little or no gain and may even hinder development

28. Figure 8 - Parenting Styles

29. Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Temperament: A basic, innate disposition Resilience - Ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological or even physical harm

30. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Trust-versus-mistrust Stage • Birth to age 1½ years • Develop feelings of trust or lack of trust Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt Stage • 1½ – 3 years of age • Develop independence and selfdoubt

31. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Initiative-versus-guilt stage • 3 – 6 years of age • Conflict between independence of action and negative results of that action Industry-versus-inferiority stage • 6 – 12 years of age • Develop positive social interactions

32. Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World Child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience Object permanence: The awareness that objects continue to exist even if they are out of sight Principle of conservation: The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects

33. Figure 9 - Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

34. Information-Processing Approaches The way in which people take in, use, and store information Metacognition: An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

35. Information-Processing Approaches Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development: Considering culture Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves Scaffolding - Provides support for learning

36. MODULE 29: Adolescence: Becoming an Adult What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?

37. Introduction Adolescence: Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood

38. Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent Puberty: Period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs Girls - 11-12 years Menstruation Boys - 13-14 years Spermarche

39. Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Three-level sequence Preconventional morality Conventional morality Postconventional morality Pertains to judgments, not moral behavior Moral development in women

40. Figure 3 - Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity

41. Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality? Adolescent egocentrism - State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his own point of view Personal fables - Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else

42. Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World Adolescent suicide Third leading cause of death for adolescents Warning signs School problems and self-destructive behavior Loss of appetite or excessive eating Withdrawal from friends Sleeping problems and signs of depression Preoccupation with death Putting affairs in order Explicit announcement of thoughts

43. Module 30: Adulthood What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes? How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period? How can we adjust to death?

44. Introduction Emerging adulthood: The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-twenties

45. Physical Development: The Peak of Health For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease Menopause: Women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile Hormone therapy (HT) with hormones estrogen and progesterone

46. Social Development: Working at Life People typically launch themselves into careers, marriage, and families Midlife transition - Period when people may begin to question their lives Midlife crisis

47. Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties Changes in marriage and divorce trends have doubled the number of single-parent households in the United States over the last two decades Economic and emotional consequences for the single-parent households

48. Changing Roles of Men and Women: The Time of Their Lives More women act simultaneously as wives, mothers, and wage earners Women’s “second shift” Additional work performed by women with a career and home responsibilities

49. Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body Genetic preprogramming theories of aging: Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time Wear-and-tear theories of aging: Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently

50. Cognitive Changes: Thinking About – and During – Late Adulthood Fluid intelligence - Information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy Shows decline in late adulthood Crystallized intelligence - Based on the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience Remains steady and in some cases actually improves