Malnutrition the older patient

1. Malnutrition & the older patient James T. Birch, Jr., MD, MSPH Assistant Clinical Professor � Dept. of Family Medicine Division of Geriatric Medicine Landon Center on Aging KU Medical Center February 19, 2007

2. Objectives Outline the ACOVE indicators for malnutrition for community-dwelling and hospitalized older persons Understand the physiologic changes that contribute to the problem Identify the risks of malnutrition in the elderly patient Discuss nutritional screening and assessment tools Our discussion today will center on identifying and addressing malnutrition in the elderly patient. Malnutrition is more common than one would expect. It is anticipated that at the end of this discussion you will have a general understanding of the ACOVE quality indicators for managing malnutrition in the older patient, appreciate the physiologic factors that contribute to this common problem, and be able to recognize risks of malnutrition. We will also review 3 nutritional screening tools that can be used to identify patients at riskOur discussion today will center on identifying and addressing malnutrition in the elderly patient. Malnutrition is more common than one would expect. It is anticipated that at the end of this discussion you will have a general understanding of the ACOVE quality indicators for managing malnutrition in the older patient, appreciate the physiologic factors that contribute to this common problem, and be able to recognize risks of malnutrition. We will also review 3 nutritional screening tools that can be used to identify patients at risk

3. Objectives Review basic nutritional requirements for the older patient Discuss options for nutritional intervention Review the ethical considerations for replacement of nutrition and hydration of the older patient Identify nutritional syndromes Before taking steps to correct the problem, one needs to have knowledge of the basic nutritional requirements for the older patient. In some cases there are a few medications that can be used to facilitate intervention and correction of malnutrition. We must be wise and cautious during ethical decision-making about artificial nutrition and hydration. In what situations might we recommend tube feedings or gastrostomy? In what cases should we not? We will then identify the most common nutritional syndromes.Before taking steps to correct the problem, one needs to have knowledge of the basic nutritional requirements for the older patient. In some cases there are a few medications that can be used to facilitate intervention and correction of malnutrition. We must be wise and cautious during ethical decision-making about artificial nutrition and hydration. In what situations might we recommend tube feedings or gastrostomy? In what cases should we not? We will then identify the most common nutritional syndromes.

4. Definition Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body does not get the right amount of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ function. The condition may result from an inadequate or unbalanced diet, digestive difficulties, absorption problems, or other medical conditions. However, there is no universally accepted clinical definition. Unfortunately, there is no universally accepted clinical definition of malnutrition in the medical and scientific community. So, the definition provided here is an effort to summarize the various definitions that are found in the medical literature. Unfortunately, there is no universally accepted clinical definition of malnutrition in the medical and scientific community. So, the definition provided here is an effort to summarize the various definitions that are found in the medical literature.

5. �Malnutrition is not something observed only in third-world countries.�1 �Older persons suffer a burden of malnutrition that spans the spectrum from under- to overnutrition.�2 �Malnutrition in the elderly is one of the greatest threats to health, well-being, and autonomy�.� 1. Kiseljak-Vassiliades, K., et al. Basic Nutrition for Successful Aging: Part 1. Clinical Geriatrics, Vol. 14(4); April 2006 2. Geriatrics Review Syllabus: A Core Curriculum in Geriatric Medicine, Sixth Edition (GRS6); American Geriatrics Society 2006 3. Francesco, VD, et al. The Anorexia of Aging. Digestive Diseases 25(2); 2007

6. ACOVE - 3Quality indicators for Malnutrition ACOVE-3 indicators are comprised of IF-THEN-BECAUSE statements Apply to community-dwelling AND hospitalized older persons 8 quality indicators covering 4 domains Indicators are not supported by RCTs (except one) because most all studies have been small and involved persons who met �narrow� entry criteria or which lacked the highest quality of methodological rigor. Indicators are a product of literature review and expert panel consideration. In October 2007, the American Geriatics Society published a new set of ACOVE indicators referred to as ACOVE-3. These indicators contain IF-THEN-BECAUSE statements. All but one of the ACOVE-3 Quality Indicators for Malnutrition are a product of literature and expert panel consensus, because there are few RCT�s involving malnutrition, and they few that are available are too small or lack quality methodological rigor.In October 2007, the American Geriatics Society published a new set of ACOVE indicators referred to as ACOVE-3. These indicators contain IF-THEN-BECAUSE statements. All but one of the ACOVE-3 Quality Indicators for Malnutrition are a product of literature and expert panel consensus, because there are few RCT�s involving malnutrition, and they few that are available are too small or lack quality methodological rigor.

7. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #1: ALL community-dwelling pts. Should be weighed at each physician office visit and these weights should be documented in the medical record BECAUSE this is an inexpensive method to screen for energy undernutrition and obesity that has prognostic importance. Weight loss and low BMI have been associated with adverse outcomes in older persons and can be identified by routine assessment. Example: among Alzheimer�s pts followed for up to 6yrs, > 5% wt. loss in any year before death predicted mortality; 22% of Alzheimer�s pts. experienced such wt. loss which is documented in a study published in JAGS 1998.Weight loss and low BMI have been associated with adverse outcomes in older persons and can be identified by routine assessment. Example: among Alzheimer�s pts followed for up to 6yrs, > 5% wt. loss in any year before death predicted mortality; 22% of Alzheimer�s pts. experienced such wt. loss which is documented in a study published in JAGS 1998.

8. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #2: IF a vulnerable elder has involuntary wt. loss of > 10% of body wt. over one year or less, THEN wt. loss (or a related disorder) should be documented in the medical record as an indication that the physician recognized malnutrition as a potential problem BECAUSE some patients with wt. loss have potentially reversible disorders. To date, there have been no published RCTs that provide evidence for the reversibility of wt. loss or improved outcomes as a result of interventions. Nevertheless, many of the causes of wt. loss (depression, hyperthyroidism, GI diseases, cancer) are treatable with therapies that have been demonstrated to be effective in RCTs.To date, there have been no published RCTs that provide evidence for the reversibility of wt. loss or improved outcomes as a result of interventions. Nevertheless, many of the causes of wt. loss (depression, hyperthyroidism, GI diseases, cancer) are treatable with therapies that have been demonstrated to be effective in RCTs.

9. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #3: IF a community-dwelling vulnerable elder has documented involuntary wt. loss or hypoalbuminemia (< 3.5g/dL), THEN she or he should receive an evaluation for potentially reversible causes of poor nutritional intake BECAUSE there are many treatable contributors to malnutrition. Serum albumin is the �best-studied� serum protein and has prognostic value for subsequent mortality and morbidity in community-swelling older persons.Serum albumin is the �best-studied� serum protein and has prognostic value for subsequent mortality and morbidity in community-swelling older persons.

10. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #4: IF a community-dwelling vulnerable elder has documented involuntary wt. loss or hypoalbuminemia (< 3.5g/dL), THEN he or she should receive an evaluation for potentially relevant comorbid conditions including: Medications that might be associated with decreased appetite (digoxin, fluoxetine, anticholinergics), depressive symptoms, and cognitive impairment BECAUSE each of these represents a treatable contributor to malnutrition.

11. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #5: IF a vulnerable elder is hospitalized, THEN his or her nutritional status should be documented during the hospitalization by evaluation of oral intake or serum biochemical testing (e.g., albumin, prealbumin, or cholesterol) BECAUSE each of these measures has prognostic significance and can identify older persons at risk of malnutrition or adverse outcomes (complications, prolonged length of stay, in-hospital and up to one-year mortality).

12. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #6: IF a hospitalized vulnerable elder is unable to take foods orally for more than 72 hours, THEN alternative alimentation (either enteral or parenteral) should be offered BECAUSE such patients are at high risk of malnutrition that can improve with caloric supplementation Some, but not all, studies of hospitalized elderly persons support the reversibility of undernutrition. To date, there are no evidence-based protocols for determining when alternative feeding methods should be employed in hospitalized older persons who are not eating. A meta-analysis indicated that hospitalized persons with malnutrition who were started on some type of nutritional intervention on the 3rd hospital day or before had an average length of stay 3.0 days less than those were started on the 4th or later hospital day.Some, but not all, studies of hospitalized elderly persons support the reversibility of undernutrition. To date, there are no evidence-based protocols for determining when alternative feeding methods should be employed in hospitalized older persons who are not eating. A meta-analysis indicated that hospitalized persons with malnutrition who were started on some type of nutritional intervention on the 3rd hospital day or before had an average length of stay 3.0 days less than those were started on the 4th or later hospital day.

13. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #7: IF a vulnerable elder who was hospitalized for a hip fracture has evidence of nutritional deficiency (thin body habitus or low serum albumin or prealbumin), THEN oral or enteral nutritional protein-energy supplementation should be initiated post-operatively BECAUSE RCTs have indicated better outcomes in these pts.

14. ACOVE-3 quality indicators Indicator #8: IF a vulnerable elder with a stroke has persistent dysphagia at 14 days, THEN a gastrostomy or jejunostomy tube should be considered for enteral feeding BECAUSE this method of feeding has improved outcomes compared to oral feeding. Patients who cannot eat but for whom the prognosis after a stroke is consistent with an acceptable quality of life benefit nutritionally from tube feeding. The decision of whether to place a gastrostomy tube in this situation depends upon the preferences of the patient and family as well as other prognostic considerations.Patients who cannot eat but for whom the prognosis after a stroke is consistent with an acceptable quality of life benefit nutritionally from tube feeding. The decision of whether to place a gastrostomy tube in this situation depends upon the preferences of the patient and family as well as other prognostic considerations.

15. Contributors to risk of malnutrition The elderly are at higher risk of developing protein-calorie malnutrition and other vitamin and mineral deficiencies. The frequency of these events increases with advancing age due to problems such as poor dentition, loss of taste, difficulty swallowing, malabsorption, and drug-nutrient interaction

16. Contributors to risk of malnutrition Other physical limitations such as inability to obtain necessary food due to lack of transportation and dependence on others for shopping, lack of financial resources, and functional limitations can contribute to nutritional deficiencies

17. Contributors to risk of malnutrition Non-perishable foods frequently contain high amounts of sodium and nitrates, and processing can remove vitamins. Many drugs cause anorexia, gustatory changes, and anosmia as major side effects. Medications can also interfere with nutrient availability

18. Risk Factors for Poor Nutrition Status

19. Physiology-the �anorexia of aging� In an article published in Digestive Diseases in 2007, Dr. Francesco and collaborators, sorted out the central Hunger-Satiety control mechanisms involving the hypothalamus. The findings of their work are summarized in this figure. Dark solid lines represent positive feedback loops for stimulation of hunger and broken lines represent negative feedback loops that signal satiety or turn off the stimulation for hunger. This helps us to understand the �anorexia of aging.� Essentially, negative feedback from impaired gastric motility, exaggerated long-term adiposity signals (CCK, PYY), and predominance of the anorexic signals seem to prevail over the central feeding drive in elderly patients.In an article published in Digestive Diseases in 2007, Dr. Francesco and collaborators, sorted out the central Hunger-Satiety control mechanisms involving the hypothalamus. The findings of their work are summarized in this figure. Dark solid lines represent positive feedback loops for stimulation of hunger and broken lines represent negative feedback loops that signal satiety or turn off the stimulation for hunger. This helps us to understand the �anorexia of aging.� Essentially, negative feedback from impaired gastric motility, exaggerated long-term adiposity signals (CCK, PYY), and predominance of the anorexic signals seem to prevail over the central feeding drive in elderly patients.

20. Physiology-the �anorexia of aging� This concept and the interaction of all these mechanisms can be further summarized in this simple diagram which illustrates all of the social, physiologic, psychological and organic conditions that characterize aging and interact to cause reduced food intake and malnutrition.This concept and the interaction of all these mechanisms can be further summarized in this simple diagram which illustrates all of the social, physiologic, psychological and organic conditions that characterize aging and interact to cause reduced food intake and malnutrition.

21. Physiology Changes in physiology, metabolism, body composition, and physical function in the older patient may alter nutritional requirements, so that standards applicable to younger patient or middle-aged adults cannot be applied to the elderly

22. Physiology Changes in body composition Decreased bone mass Decreased lean mass Decreased water content Increased total body fat (greater intra-abdominal fat stores) Decline in organ function is highly variable among individuals and may affect assessment and intervention options

23. Physiology Serum albumin is a recognized risk indicator for morbidity and mortality but is not an indicator of malnutrition because it lacks sensitivity and specificity. A modest decline does occur with aging Half-life is ~ 20 days Sensitive to hydration state and presence of inflammation, surgery, and other severe disease

24. Physiology Hypoalbuminemia in the A. Community Setting Functional limitation Sarcopenia Increased health care use Mortality When detected in the community setting, low serum albumin has been associated with these occurrences: When detected in the community setting, low serum albumin has been associated with these occurrences:

25. Physiology Hypoalbuminemia in the B. Hospital setting Increased length of stay Complications Readmissions Mortality When detected in the hospital setting, low serum albumin has been associated with these occurrences: When detected in the hospital setting, low serum albumin has been associated with these occurrences:

26. Physiology There are some reports which express the use of caution with using albumin as a measurement of nutritional status in �hospitalized� patients. It is inversely correlated with markers of inflammatory activity (ESR, CRP) and can behave as an acute-phase reactant, with markedly reduced levels in the setting of acute illness. Also, in a research study published in Clinical Nutrition in 2007, findings suggested that low serum albumin level did not correlate with the presence of malnutrition in patients with low ADL function even among those without inflammation. This can largely be attributed to the loss of muscle mass in those elderly individuals with low physical activity. Also, in a research study published in Clinical Nutrition in 2007, findings suggested that low serum albumin level did not correlate with the presence of malnutrition in patients with low ADL function even among those without inflammation. This can largely be attributed to the loss of muscle mass in those elderly individuals with low physical activity.

27. Physiology Prealbumin half-life ~ 48 hours Responds rather quickly to increased protein intake Controversial with regards to its use as a marker of malnutrition Best used in conjunction with other parameters (i.e. exam, BMI, CRP, hx of wt. loss, and various nutritional assessments) Also affected by changes in transcapillary escape due to infection, inflammation, etc.

28. Physiology Cholesterol Serum cholesterol has been linked to nutritional status. Levels <160mg/dl have been detected in patients with malignancy or other severe disease states. Community-dwelling elderly with both hypoalbuminemia and hypocholesterolemia exhibit higher rates of functional decline and mortality than those with either one alone.

29. Drugs that can cause ANOREXIA digoxin phenytoin SSRI�s / lithium Ca++ channel blockers H2 receptor antagonists / PPIs Any chemotherapy metronidazole narcotic analgesics K+ supplements furosemide ipratropium bromide theophylline spironolactone levodopa fluoxetine

30. Drugs can interfere with senses of taste and smell More than 250 medications reportedly disturb gustatory sensation More than 40 drugs reportedly disturb the sense of olfaction A few of these agents have been objectively determined to affect these functions via experiments, clinical trials, or intensity scaling

31. Drugs That Interfere With Gustation (taste) and Olfaction (smell) Gustation Allopurinol Amitriptyline Ampicillin Baclofen Dexamethasone Diltiazem Enalapril Hydrochlorothiazide Imipramine Labetalol Mexiletine Ofloxacin Nifedipine Phenytoin Promethazine Propranolol Sulfamethoxazole Tetracyclines Olfaction Amitriptyline Codeine Dexamethasone Enalapril Flunisolide Flurbiprofen Hydromorphone Levamisole Morphine Pentamidine Propafenone Take a look at these long lists and see which ones you commonly prescribe for your elderly patients. Try to keep these in mind when they report �loss of apetite� as a symptom.Take a look at these long lists and see which ones you commonly prescribe for your elderly patients. Try to keep these in mind when they report �loss of apetite� as a symptom.

32. Drug-nutrient interactions Many of the aforementioned drugs and others interfere with the absorption of various vitamins and minerals Examples: Antacids- Vitamin B12, folate, iron, total kcal Diuretics- Zn, Mg, Vitamin B6, K+, Cu Laxatives- Ca, Vitamins A, B2, B12, D, E, K

33. Drug-Nutrient Interaction In general, patients should not take vitamin supplements or calcium with their other medications because many of them will interfere with the absorption of the very nutrients being replaced.In general, patients should not take vitamin supplements or calcium with their other medications because many of them will interfere with the absorption of the very nutrients being replaced.

34. Basic Nutritional Requirements for the Older Patient Estimated total daily energy need (based on body weight): 25-30 kcal/kg/day Estimated total daily energy need (based on basal energy expenditure; BEE): Harris-Benedict Equation Male BEE = 66 + (13.7 x kg) + (5 x cm) � (6.8 x age) Female BEE = 655.1 + (9.563 x kg) + (1.850 x cm) - (4.676 x age) Results should be multiplied by 1.5 to estimate energy expenditure of ill elderly patients Here we have the daily energy requirements based on body weight. The Harris Benedict Equation is very useful in the hospital setting for calculating total daily energy need or caloric requirements. You can always look it up in case you forget it, but don�t forget to multiply the answer by 1.5 for elderly patients who are exceptionally ill.Here we have the daily energy requirements based on body weight. The Harris Benedict Equation is very useful in the hospital setting for calculating total daily energy need or caloric requirements. You can always look it up in case you forget it, but don�t forget to multiply the answer by 1.5 for elderly patients who are exceptionally ill.

35. Basic Nutritional Requirements for the Older Patient Carbohydrates should comprise 45-65% of total calories Fat should comprise 20-35% of total calories Protein should comprise 10-35% of total calories Fluid : 30ml/kg/day or 1ml per kcal intake

36. Basic Nutritional Requirements for the Older Patient Estimation of protein: (0.8 to 1.5)gm/kg/day Restriction of these amounts may be indicated in renal or hepatic insufficiency Estimation of fiber: (complex carbohydrates are the preferred fiber source) Men: 30 gm/day Women: 21 gm/day (see the 1-30-30 rule on the pocket card) It is very difficult to conceptualize how much 30gm of fiber is when we don�t use the metric system. So one example is: one cup of brown rice consists of 3 gm of fiber; so one would have to eat 10 cups of brown rice per day to take in 30 gm of fiber.It is very difficult to conceptualize how much 30gm of fiber is when we don�t use the metric system. So one example is: one cup of brown rice consists of 3 gm of fiber; so one would have to eat 10 cups of brown rice per day to take in 30 gm of fiber.

37. Nutritional Screening and Assessment Nutrition Screening Initiative (NSI): collaborative effort of AAFP, ADA, and the National Council on Aging NSI completed a study in 1996, revealing evidence that older patients admitted to the hospital in poor nutritional states had longer stays and increased rates of complications than well-nourished patients.* * Bagley, B; Nutrition and Health (Editorial); AFP, 57(5): March 1, 1998

38. Nutritional Screening and Assessment The NSI developed a screening tool that can be completed by patients, family members, or a health care professional The tool consists of 10 questions which are scored and placed in 3 categories: No nutritional risk 0-2 points Moderate nutritional risk 3-5 points High nutritional risk >6 points

39. Nutritional Screening and Assessment NSI (points apply to �YES� answers) I have an illness or condition that made me change the kind and/or amount of food I eat (2) I eat fewer than two meals per day (3) I eat few fruits or vegetables, or mild products (2) I have 3 or more drinks of beer, liquor, or wine almost every day (2) I have tooth or mouth problems that make it hard for me to eat-2 I don�t always have enough money to buy the food I need (4) I eat alone most of the time (1) I take 3 or more different prescribed or OTC drugs per day (1) Without wanting to, I have lost or gained 10 or more pounds in the last six months (2) I am not always physically able to shop, cook and/or feed myself (2)

40. Nutritional Screening and Assessment Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) is a validated screening and assessment tool for identifying elderly patients with or at risk for malnutrition Developed by the Nestl� Research Center, in collaboration with hospital clinicians

41. Nutritional Screening and Assessment The MNA obviates the need for blood tests to screen and monitor a patient�s nutritional status Composed of two sections: Screening and Assessment

42. Nutritional Screening and Assessment MNA Screening: In the screening section, five questions are asked, and the patient's BMI (Body Mass Index) is calculated, using the patient's height and weight. From these six items, a score is calculated, which will indicate whether there is possible malnutrition Screening score: (max. 14 pts) > 12 pts Normal; not at risk < 11 pts Poss. malnutrition; go to assessment

43. Nutritional Screening and Assessment MNA Assessment: Clarifies whether there is a future risk of malnutrition, or if malnourishment is currently present. The assessment section is comprised of 10 questions, and two anthropometric measures � mid-arm circumference and calf circumference. Scoring (max. 16 pts); when added to screening score, total max is 30 pts. If total is 17-23.5 pts, pt is at risk of malnutrition and if <17 pts, the pt is malnourished.

44. Nutritional Screening and Assessment The MNA has demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, inter-observer reliability, and validity in studies of community-dwelling, hospitalized, and nursing home elderly individuals around the world and in the U.S. Beck, A., et al. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Nov 2001, Vol 55(11); 1028-33

45. Nutritional Screening and Assessment Limitations of use of MNA: Lack of familiarity with the requirement of measuring both mid-arm and calf circumference

46. Nutritional Screening and Assessment Geriatric Nutritional Risk Index (GNRI): requires measurements of height, albumin, and weight at admission (also ideal weight as calculated from the Lorentz equation). Nutritional risk is graded based on results of calculations. It is a more reliable prognostic indicator of morbidity and mortality in hospitalized elderly. Low albumin and elevated CRP correlate statistically with increased nutritional risk (stronger than with prealbumin)

47. Body Size Classification Before discussing nutritional syndromes, it is important to review the definitions of the syndromes based on Body Mass Index:Before discussing nutritional syndromes, it is important to review the definitions of the syndromes based on Body Mass Index:

48. Nutritional Syndromes Undernutrition-3rd leading condition in hospital and home care sites and 4th leading condition in office practice and nursing homes for which QI efforts would improve the functional health of older persons.

49. Nutritional Syndromes Undernutrition: it is often clinically difficult to physically distinguish �cachexia� from �wasting� Cachexia � (REE is increased) Wasting � (REE is decreased) *REE � Resting energy expenditure In either cachexia or wasting, energy expenditure exceeds exceeds caloric intake.In either cachexia or wasting, energy expenditure exceeds exceeds caloric intake.

50. Nutritional Syndromes Obesity � prevalence extends to the 60-70 age group Adverse outcomes associated with obesity include impaired functional status (esp. BMI>35), increased health care resource use and increased mortality Poor diet quality and micronutrient deficiencies are common in obese elderly pts., especially women who live alone

51. Nutritional Syndromes In the older obese patient, the focus should be on attaining a healthy weight to promote improved function, overall health, and quality of life A combination of dietary change, behavior modification and increasing activity or exercise are appropriate for most elderly obese patients.

52. Nutritional Syndromes However, homebound elderly are growing in number among the elderly obese. For those with frailty and obesity, the emphasis may be better placed on preservation of strength and flexibility rather than on weight reduction.

53. Nutritional interventions PREVENTION is easier than treatment Intake improved by catering to food preferences; avoid therapeutic diets with no known clinical value Prepare patients for meals with hand/mouth care; proper positioning Assist those who need assistance Use herbs and spices to compensate for the losses of senses of taste and smell

54. Nutritional interventions Avoid rushing through a meal Meals-On-Wheels wherever possible (Title III of Older Americans Act) Provide dietary supplements Micronutrient supplements Calcium and vitamin D (1200mg/800 I.U.) Rushing patients through a meal is relatively common in nursing homes with staffing shortages. Rushing patients through a meal is relatively common in nursing homes with staffing shortages.

55. Nutritional interventions Vitamin E has not been shown to reduce the progression of Alzheimer�s disease or prevent coronary artery disease, but has been associated with a higher risk of hemorrhagic stroke; naturally occurring vitamins may do a better job of preventing cardiovascular disease and mortality.

56. Nutritional interventions It has been suggested that multivitamins and antioxidants may help to prevent age-related cataracts and macular degeneration Ask about and document all medications and supplements being taken. Review the necessity, safety, potential risks, and adverse effects with the patient.

57. Nutritional interventions DRUG TREATMENT: Appetite stimulants Cytokine-modulating agents Trophic agents Cytokine modulating agents are experimental. They include anti-TNF with antibodies that may inhibit the cytokine mediated inflammation associated with wt. loss (cachexia/AIDS). Thalidomide may decrease levels of TNF, n-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants which modulate cytokine production. Trophic agents are rarely utilized in the clinical setting. Cytokine modulating agents are experimental. They include anti-TNF with antibodies that may inhibit the cytokine mediated inflammation associated with wt. loss (cachexia/AIDS). Thalidomide may decrease levels of TNF, n-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants which modulate cytokine production. Trophic agents are rarely utilized in the clinical setting.

58. Nutritional interventions Appetite stimulants mirtazapine (Remeron): 3.75-30mg PO at bedtime; enhances serotonin via antagonism of the 5-HT3 receptor cyproheptadine (Periactin): 2-4mg PO orally with meals; serotonin and histamine antagonist with some anticholinergic properties and potential for confusion in the elderly

59. Nutritional interventions Appetite stimulants Megestrol (Megace) 320 � 800 mg PO in four divided doses. Wt. gain is primarily fat; associated with increased risk of DVT in nursing home patients Dronabinol (Marinol) 5-15mg/M2/day; a cannabinoid associated with somnolence and dysphoria in older persons Cytokine modulating agents are experimental. They include anti-TNF with antibodies that may inhibit the cytokine mediated inflammation associated with wt. loss (cachexia/AIDS). Thalidomide may decrease levels of TNF, n-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants which modulate cytokine production Cytokine modulating agents are experimental. They include anti-TNF with antibodies that may inhibit the cytokine mediated inflammation associated with wt. loss (cachexia/AIDS). Thalidomide may decrease levels of TNF, n-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants which modulate cytokine production

60. Ethical issues For the nursing home patient, standards of care stipulate that a resident maintain acceptable parameters of nutritional status (weight, protein levels) unless the clinical condition is one wherein this is not possible, and a resident should receive a therapeutic diet when there is a problem.

61. Ethical issues Adequate nutrition and hydration should always be provided to the elderly patient unless invasive nutritional support is refused by a fully-competent patient (document in written form that pt. has been informed of potential consequences of this choice with witnesses) or the terminally ill patient has executed a living will or advance directive that excludes artificial feeding in the event of unexpected death or terminal illness.

62. Ethical issues Use caution with initiation of artificial nutrition and hydration in demented patients. This has not been demonstrated to improve life expectancy or quality of life. Appropriate counseling of patient, family, and/or surrogate of the consequences of withholding nutrition and feeding is obligatory! Consider palliative care in the setting of severe or end-stage dementia, and in those cases where living wills specify the withholding of artificial nutrition and hydration.

63. SUMMARY Malnutrition is remarkably common in the older adult The risk of malnutrition in the elderly is high even in the absence of clinical or social risk factors due to the primitive so-called �anorexia of aging.� Limitations in functional capacity, dentition, and support systems contribute to the problem Medications can and do adversely impact nutritional status Use of one of the screening tools can identify undernourished individuals whose problems are amenable to intervention

64. SUMMARY Prevention is best, but implementation of interventions as early as possible (< 3 days since diagnosis) enhance more favorable outcomes Prealbumin alone is probably not a good parameter for identifying malnutrition but when combined with other measures such as serum albumin, cholesterol, BMI, or CRP it can be more useful. Low albumin and elevated CRP can be significant risk indicators while not being �diagnostic� of the presence of malnutrition.

65. SUMMARY Clarify patients� advance directives whenever possible before initiating tube feedings or other artificial nutrition and hydration. Only a few of the quality indicators for malnutrition have evidence to support them, but the 8 ACOVE indicators we�ve discussed can serve as measures that may differentiate between quality and substandard care.

66. References Nestle Nutrition; MNA (Mini Nutritional Assessment) http://www.nestle-nutrition.com/tools/mna.aspx Malnutrition, Chap. 24; Geriatrics Review Syllabus, Sixth Edition; American Geriatrics Society, 2006: PP 174-80 Reuben, D. Quality Indicators for Malnutrition for Vulnerable Community-Dwelling and Hospitalized Older Persons; RAND Health; http://www.rand.org/health/projects/acove/quality_indicators.html Bagley, B. Nutrition and Health-Editorial; American Family Physician; March 1, 1998; 57(5)+- Beck, A.M., et al. A six month�s prospective follow-up of 65+ y-old patients from general practice classified according to nutritional risk by the Mini Nutritional Assessment; Euro J of Clin Nutrition, 2001, Vol. 55: 1028-33 Lantz, M.S. Failure to Thrive; Clinical Geriatrics, March 2005, 13(3): pp 20-23 Kiseljak-Vassiliades, K., et al. Basic Nutrition for Successful Aging: Part 1; Clinical Geriatrics, April 2006, 14(4):pp 16-24 Shenkin, A. Serum Prealbumin: Is It a Marker of Nutritional Status or of Risk of Malnutrition?-Editorial; Clinical Chemistry: 52(12), 2006 Devoto, G., et al. Prealbumin Serum Concentrations as a Useful Tool in the Assessment of malnutrition in Hospitalized Patients. Clinical Chemistry: 52(12):2281-85, 2006 Francesco, V.D., et al. The Anorexia of Aging; Digestive Diseases 25(2):129-137; 2007