How to Write Papers for Philosophy Classes

1. How to Write Papers for Philosophy Classes

2. How to write papers for Philosophy classes • Writing papers for philosophy is a skill, or at least a knack. • Although only practice can produce excellence, there are some tips which you can benefit from.

3. Why care about this? • You wouldn’t be here if you didn’t. • You’ll enjoy your work more if you’re doing it well. • Your relationship with your professor will become less adversarial, and more beneficial. • You’ll get better grades.

4. Simple things matter • Your name, date, PHIL### • One inch margins • 12-point font • Clean, clear print job if on paper; attached doc if emailed • Numbered pages

5. Just what do you think you’re doing? • If you don’t know what you’re trying to argue, neither will the professor. It doesn’t matter that the professor made the assignment. So:

6. THESIS STATEMENT • You must have one. • In a short essay, it belongs in the first paragraph. • It should be clear and specific, and: • It should answer the question you’ve been asked.

7. Thesis, con’t. • “This paper will examine the problem of free will.” – Not a good thesis statement • “I shall argue that humans have free will.” – better. • No matter how open-ended the assignment, you are doing something very specific.

8. Thesis, con’t. • “The problem of separated forms is a complex one.” True, but not a good thesis. • “Based on Aristotle’s understanding of material causation, Plato’s theory of separated forms proves to be untenable.” Much better thesis.

9. Thesis, con’t. • Keep in mind as you plan the paper: just what do you think you’re doing? If you take the time to develop a good thesis statement, the rest of the organizational structure will flow naturally from it. • What are you doing? Presenting and evaluating arguments. If the reader doesn’t know what those are directed towards, they cannot be effective.

10. Type of assignment determines thesis • Making an argument • Compare and contrast • Explaining • There are other possible assignments, but these are the most common, and in any case, you always need a thesis, and it should always be clear and specific, and answer the question you’ve been asked.

11. Example – type 1 • Assignment: “According to Walzer’s theory of pre-emption, would a US first strike against Russia be justified right now?” • That’s easy: it’s a Yes/No question – so there are only two possible thesis statements. • Note the qualifier: “on Walzer’s theory” – not so open-ended.

12. Example – type 2 • Assignment: “Contrast Locke’s theory of property with Hume’s” • That’s tougher. But the task is the same: think first! If you’re asked to compare, you need to show how the two are interestingly different despite some similarities, or interestingly similar despite some differences.

13. Example, con’t. • So: first, figure out what the similarities and differences are. In general – you always want to think about how you want to answer the question. In this case, you might notice, e.g., that while Locke thinks of property as something to which we’re naturally entitled, Hume sees property as a useful social convention.

14. Example, con’t. • But: they both agree that it is crucial to a stable and just society that there be rights to property. There you go: a similarity in outcome, despite a methodological difference which is philosophically significant.

15. Example – type 3 • Assignment: “What does Marx mean by ‘false consciousness’?” • As always, you’ll need to think first. What does he mean? Note that the question isn’t “what does it mean?” but “what does he mean?” – i.e., your task is to figure out what Marx means and explain it.

16. Example, con’t. • That means the thesis would be something like: “By ‘false consciousness, Marx means……[whatever you have concluded he means]”

17. That it? • No. The thesis statement is an essential part of the introductory paragraph, but the intro paragraph should have more than just that. • Intro paragraph should contain material that sets a context, getting the reader ready for seeing what the question is that the thesis is an answer to.

18. But don’t you know that already? • Probably, but that’s besides the point. • Your target audience isn’t the professor, nor is it a complete idiot who has no idea whatsoever why you’re writing about this. • Think as a target of some intelligent college student or recent grad who is pretty much your intellectual equal, but isn’t taking this class. How would you explain it to that person?

19. Title helps • Since you’re trying to communicate, a title can, in conjunction with the intro, help the reader know what point you’re trying to make. • If the title is “Hume and Locke on Property,” that’s somewhat helpful. • If the title is “The Case for Invading Russia,” that’s very helpful.

20. Other intro tips • First line should be interesting, but don’t begin with grandiose, yet unsubstantiated claims. • Avoid clichéd openings. • “Since the dawn of time,…” • “Everyone agrees that…” Also, avoid “dictionary definitions” – they rarely help illuminate philosophical points.

21. Organization • Once you’ve figured out what you think, inventory for yourself why you think that. What are your reasons? • That’s the bulk of your outline. You have some reasons for coming to the conclusion you have come to – now present the arguments and evidence that constitute those reasons.

22. Outlines • Make one. It helps organize your thoughts, but also helps make your thoughts clear to the reader. • The next few paragraphs after the intro should be taken up with the giving of arguments that support your thesis. Each paragraph ought to make your thesis that much more credible.

23. QED • Remember, you’re trying to “prove” something even when you’re not literally doing a proof – namely, that you’re saying something that is coherent and worth taking seriously. You need to show your reasons for making the claims you’re making. Does each paragraph add further support to your thesis?

24. Quotations • Use them. • But don’t just drop them in. A quotation (or even a paraphrase) of source material should be followed up by analysis on your part. “This means that…” “In other words,…” “On this view,….” • Remember, both paraphrases and direct quotations need proper citations.

25. Proper what? • Passing off another’s work as if it were your own is dishonest, immoral, and also a violation of college rules. • Any use of someone else’s work needs to be documented. It’s perfectly ok, indeed good, to use the work of others, as long as this is credited.

26. No footnote required • Your own ideas • Common knowledge • Very broad generalizations • Everything else needs a reference

27. Reference? You said footnote. • Preferred documentation style varies from instructor to instructor. Ask! • There are several acceptable styles. But you can’t use none of them, and you can’t make up your own. • MLA, APA, Chicago

28. Footnotes to what? • “Research” for a philosophy paper usually just means reading the assigned readings. But unless your professor explicitly says otherwise, you’re free to consult other sources as well. If you’ve been assigned a tough primary source, consider a secondary source. If it’s a controversial piece, look for something with a contrary view.

29. Research, con’t. • Use “The Philosopher’s Index,” which is in most libraries, to see what’s recent. • Use the bibliographies in your texts and other assigned readings to point you towards other readings of possible use. • Ask your professor for suggestions, or ask a friend or classmate who has more philosophy experience.

30. Organization, con’t. • Often it’s effective to consider, and rebut, a possible counter-argument. • Principle of charity – don’t straw-man. • Why is this effective?

31. Organization, con’t. • Conclusion – don’t just end abruptly. One more paragraph to wrap it up. • Don’t just restate the intro. • Take advantage of the fact that, now, you have made your arguments and presented your evidence.

32. So, do you want my opinion? • Sort of. We do not want your unreflective opinion, your unexamined preconceptions. • We do usually want your critical judgements, your reasoning, your reflective analysis. • Show that you have grappled with the material in the process of coming to whatever conclusion you come to.

33. Proofread!!!!! • You will really weaken your case, and alienate the reader, if you fail to proofread. • Proofread on paper – not just on screen. • Spell-Check – necessary but not sufficient • Grammar Check – worse than useless • Read aloud?

34. Does spelling count? • Yes. • So do grammar and punctuation. • Also: getting the words right. Although you may be studying utilitarianism or liberalism, no one is a utilitarianist or a liberalist. You have not been studying John Stuart Mills.

35. Four things • Substance • Organization • Style • Correctness

36. More here: • http://puffin.creighton.edu/phil/Stephens/WRITINGM.html • William O. Stephens, How to Write Philosophy Papers (follow the link on my web site!)

37. Another way to learn to write • Read! Read widely in the field, and you will get a better sense of what constitutes effective writing. • Philosophy journals • Some good philosophical writing in some of the opinion magazines

38. Other useful tips: • Distinguish i.e., e.g., viz, etc., et al. • Periods go at the end of the sentence (even this one). • Why ‘this’ and “this” are different. • Cite authors, not editors. (Editors get theirs at the end.) • Tone: formal versus informal; rants

39. Qua? • “Qua” means “in the specific role of.” So, “man qua man” or “being qua being”would be expressions that refer to those aspects of being a human that specifically makes one human, or those distinguishing characteristics of being that makes it what it is. You’ll see a lot of qua in philosophy.

40. Are you perfect? • Most of us are not. So consider rewriting. • Write a first draft, then give it a rest, then rewrite. Sometimes, your professor will consent to look at the first draft and let you know if you’re on the right track. • To do this, you must manage time efficiently.

41. Exercise • How would you outline this paper assignment? “Discuss whether dogs or cats make better pets.”

42. I know that’s a silly example • Thesis statement: Dogs are better pets than cats (or, vice versa). • Outline: • I. Intro • II. Criteria for being a good pet • III. Why dogs (or cats) fit that criteria • IV. Counter-argument and rebuttal • V. Conclusion

43. Try another • Explain the role of practical reason in Aristotle’s theory of virtue.

44. Hmmmm…. • Thesis statement: “For Aristotle, practical reason is a key component of virtue because…” • Intro might distinguish practical from theoretical reason. • Body paragraphs should show how the theory of virtue relies on this distinction. • Remember that your arguments and evidence must serve your thesis.

45. Try another • Assess the morality of assisted suicide.

46. Thesis would be…? • It’s always permissible • It’s permissible under certain conditions • It’s never permissible

47. Why? • Whichever thesis you have selected, you must have some reasons why you hold that position. What are they? WRITE THAT DOWN! That’s your outline, or part of it, anyway.

48. BUT: • Are there any decent arguments against your position? What are they, and why do people hold them? Explain that, then- • Explain why, nevertheless, you’re still right.

49. Transitions • Some might argue that… • Smith, on the contrary, holds that… • One objection might be…

50. Transitions, con’t. • This fails to take into account… • While true, this point doesn’t adequately explain… • This objection fails because…