ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

2. Core Case Study: South Asia’s Massive Brown Cloud (1) Asian Brown Cloud India to Bangladesh to China’s Pacific coast Pollutants from fires, cars, industry Skies permanently gray or brown

3. Core Case Study: South Asia’s Massive Brown Cloud (2) Changing weather patterns 700,000 premature deaths per year Has traveled to the west coast of the U.S. Made worse by global warming

5. 15-1 What is the Nature of the Atmosphere? Concept 15-1 The two innermost layers of the atmosphere are the troposphere, which supports life, and the stratosphere, which contains the protective ozone layer.

6. Earth’s Atmosphere Troposphere 5-11 miles above earth’s surface 75–80% earth’s air mass 78% N2, 21% O2 Weather and climate Stratosphere Ozone layer

7. Figure 15.2: Natural capital: The earth’s atmosphere is a dynamic system that includes four layers. The average temperature of the atmosphere varies with altitude (red line) and with differences in the absorption of incoming solar energy. Most ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone, found primarily in the stratosphere in the ozone layer 17–26 kilometers (11–16 miles) above sea level. Question: What would happen to life as we know it if the ozone layer in the stratosphere disappeared? Explain.Figure 15.2: Natural capital: The earth’s atmosphere is a dynamic system that includes four layers. The average temperature of the atmosphere varies with altitude (red line) and with differences in the absorption of incoming solar energy. Most ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone, found primarily in the stratosphere in the ozone layer 17–26 kilometers (11–16 miles) above sea level. Question: What would happen to life as we know it if the ozone layer in the stratosphere disappeared? Explain.

8. 15-2 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? (1) Concept 15-2A Three major outdoor air pollution problems are industrial smog from burning coal, photochemical smog from motor vehicle and industrial emissions, and acid deposition from coal burning and motor vehicle exhaust.

9. 15-2 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? (2) Concept 15-2B The most threatening indoor air pollutants are smoke and soot from wood and coal fires (mostly in developing countries) and chemicals used in building materials and products.

10. Outdoor Air Pollution What is air pollution? Stationary and mobile sources Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants

11. Types of Major Air Pollutants Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid (NO, NO2, HNO3) Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid (SO2, H2SO4) Particulates (SPM) Ozone (O3) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

12. Figure 15.3: Sources and types of air pollutants. Human inputs of air pollutants may come from mobile sources (such as cars) and stationary sources (such as industrial and power plants). Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants.Figure 15.3: Sources and types of air pollutants. Human inputs of air pollutants may come from mobile sources (such as cars) and stationary sources (such as industrial and power plants). Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants.

13. Industrial Smog Burning coal Sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, suspended particles Developed versus developing countries Air pollution control in the U.S. and Europe China, India, Ukraine

14. Photochemical Smog Photochemical reactions Photochemical smog Brown-air smog Sources Health effects Urban areas

16. Natural Factors That Reduce Air Pollution Particles heavier than air Rain and snow Salty sea spray from oceans Winds Chemical reactions

17. Natural Factors That Increase Air Pollution Urban buildings Hills and mountains High temperatures VOC emissions from certain trees and plants Grasshopper effect Temperature inversions

18. Acid Deposition Sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides Wet and dry deposition Acid rain Regional air pollution Midwest coal-burning power plants Prevailing winds

19. Figure 15.5: Natural capital degradation: acid deposition, which consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6, is commonly called acid rain. Soils and lakes vary in their ability to neutralize excess acidity. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which your daily activities contribute to acid deposition?Figure 15.5: Natural capital degradation: acid deposition, which consists of rain, snow, dust, or gas with a pH lower than 5.6, is commonly called acid rain. Soils and lakes vary in their ability to neutralize excess acidity. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which your daily activities contribute to acid deposition?

20. Figure 15.6: Regions where acid deposition is now a problem and regions with the potential to develop this problem. Such regions have large inputs of air pollution (mostly from power plants, industrial plants, and ore smelters) or are sensitive areas with soils and bedrock that cannot neutralize (buffer) inputs of acidic compounds. Question: Do you live in or near an area that is affected by acid deposition or an area that is likely to be affected by acid deposition in the future? (Data from World Resources Institute and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007)Figure 15.6: Regions where acid deposition is now a problem and regions with the potential to develop this problem. Such regions have large inputs of air pollution (mostly from power plants, industrial plants, and ore smelters) or are sensitive areas with soils and bedrock that cannot neutralize (buffer) inputs of acidic compounds. Question: Do you live in or near an area that is affected by acid deposition or an area that is likely to be affected by acid deposition in the future? (Data from World Resources Institute and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007)

21. Harmful Effects of Acid Deposition Structural damage Respiratory diseases in humans Toxic metal leaching Kills fish and other aquatic organisms Leaches plant nutrients from soil Acid clouds and fog at mountaintops

22. Figure 15.7: Methods for reducing acid deposition and its damage. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.7: Methods for reducing acid deposition and its damage. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

23. Indoor Air Pollution Developing countries Indoor cooking and heating Often higher concentration in buildings and cars Most time is spent indoors or in cars EPA – top cancer risk

24. Major Indoor Air Pollutants Tobacco smoke Formaldehyde Radioactive radon-222 gas Very small particles

25. Figure 15.8: Some important indoor air pollutants (Concept 15-1B). Question: Which of these pollutants are you exposed to? (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)Figure 15.8: Some important indoor air pollutants (Concept 15-1B). Question: Which of these pollutants are you exposed to? (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)

26. Air Pollution and the Human Respiratory System Natural protective system Lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma Premature deaths Air pollution kills 2.4 million people prematurely every year

27. Figure 15.9: Major components of the human respiratory system. Figure 15.9: Major components of the human respiratory system.

28. Figure 15.10: Premature deaths from air pollution in the United States, mostly from very small, fine, and ultra-fine particles added to the atmosphere by coal-burning power plants. Questions: Why are the highest death rates in the eastern half of the United States? What is the risk where you live or go to school? (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005)Figure 15.10: Premature deaths from air pollution in the United States, mostly from very small, fine, and ultra-fine particles added to the atmosphere by coal-burning power plants. Questions: Why are the highest death rates in the eastern half of the United States? What is the risk where you live or go to school? (Data from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005)

29. 15-3 How Should We Deal with Air Pollution? Concept 15-3 Legal, economic, and technological tools can help clean up air pollution, but the best solution is to prevent it.

30. U.S. Outdoor Air Pollution Control Laws Clean Air Acts Air-quality standards for 6 major pollutants Levels of these 6 pollutants have fallen dramatically between 1980 and 2008

31. Improving Air Pollution Laws (1) Emphasize pollution prevention Increase fuel economy standards Regulate emissions from two-cycle engines Regulate ultra-fine particles

32. Improving Air Pollution Laws (2) Increase regulations at airports Decrease urban ozone Increase regulations for indoor air pollution Better enforcement of Clean Air Act

33. Using the Marketplace to Reduce Air Pollution Emissions trading (cap and trade) program Proponents – cheaper and more efficient Critics – companies buy their way out Success depends on cap being gradually lowered

34. Figure 15.11: Methods for reducing emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter from stationary sources such as coal-burning electric power plants and industrial plants (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.11: Methods for reducing emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter from stationary sources such as coal-burning electric power plants and industrial plants (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

35. Figure 15.12: Methods for reducing emissions from motor vehicles (Concept 15-3). To find out what and how much your car emits, go to www.cleancarsforkids.org. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.12: Methods for reducing emissions from motor vehicles (Concept 15-3). To find out what and how much your car emits, go to www.cleancarsforkids.org. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

36. Figure 15.13: Ways to prevent and reduce indoor air pollution (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.13: Ways to prevent and reduce indoor air pollution (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

38. Figure 15.15: Ways to prevent outdoor and indoor air pollution over the next 30–40 years (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.15: Ways to prevent outdoor and indoor air pollution over the next 30–40 years (Concept 15-3). Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

39. 15-4 How Might the Earth’s Climate Change in the Future? Concept 15-4 Considerable scientific evidence indicates that emissions of greenhouse gases into the earth’s atmosphere from human activities will lead to significant climate change during this century.

40. Past Climate Changes Glacial and interglacial periods Global cooling and global warming Measurement of past temperature changes Rocks and fossils Ice cores from glaciers Tree rings Historical measurements since 1861

41. Figure 15.16: Science: estimated changes in the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface over different periods of time. The graphs in the top half of this figure are rough estimates of global average temperatures, and the two graphs on the bottom are estimates of changes in the average temperature. They are based on limited evidence, but they do indicate general trends. Question: Assuming these estimates are correct, what are two conclusions you can draw from these diagrams? (Data from Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, National Academy of Sciences, National Aeronautics and Space Agency, National Center for Atmospheric Research, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)Figure 15.16: Science: estimated changes in the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface over different periods of time. The graphs in the top half of this figure are rough estimates of global average temperatures, and the two graphs on the bottom are estimates of changes in the average temperature. They are based on limited evidence, but they do indicate general trends. Question: Assuming these estimates are correct, what are two conclusions you can draw from these diagrams? (Data from Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, National Academy of Sciences, National Aeronautics and Space Agency, National Center for Atmospheric Research, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

43. The Greenhouse Effect Earth’s natural greenhouse effect Natural greenhouse gases Water vapor (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

44. Evidence to Support Global Warming (1) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 IPCC report Rise in average global surface temperature 10 warmest years on record since 1970

45. Evidence to Support Global Warming (2) Annual greenhouse gas emissions up 70% between 1970 and 2008 Changes in glaciers, rainfall patterns, hurricanes Sea level rise in this century 4–8 inches

48. Figure 15.19: The big melt. Each summer, some of the floating sea ice in the Arctic Sea melts and then refreezes during winter. But in recent years, rising average atmospheric and ocean temperatures have caused more and more ice to melt. Satellite data show a 39% drop in the average cover of summer arctic sea ice between 1979 and 2007. Such summer ice may be gone by 2037, and perhaps earlier. A bit of good news is that because sea ice floats, it does not contribute to a rising sea level when it melts. (Data U.S. Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, National Snow and Ice Data Center)Figure 15.19: The big melt. Each summer, some of the floating sea ice in the Arctic Sea melts and then refreezes during winter. But in recent years, rising average atmospheric and ocean temperatures have caused more and more ice to melt. Satellite data show a 39% drop in the average cover of summer arctic sea ice between 1979 and 2007. Such summer ice may be gone by 2037, and perhaps earlier. A bit of good news is that because sea ice floats, it does not contribute to a rising sea level when it melts. (Data U.S. Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, National Snow and Ice Data Center)

49. CO2 Is the Major Culprit 1850: 285 ppm 2009: 388 ppm Over 450 ppm is tipping point 350 ppm as intermediate goal

51. Science Focus: Scientific Consensus about Future Global Temperature Changes? Temperature as a function of greenhouse gases Mathematical models Model data and assumptions Predictions and model reliability Recent warming due to human activities

52. Figure 15.A: Science: simplified model of some major processes that interact to determine the average temperature and greenhouse gas content of the lower atmosphere and thus the earth’s climate. Red arrows show processes that warm the atmosphere and blue arrows show those that cool the atmosphere. Question: Why do you think a decrease in snow and ice cover would increase the average temperature of the atmosphere?Figure 15.A: Science: simplified model of some major processes that interact to determine the average temperature and greenhouse gas content of the lower atmosphere and thus the earth’s climate. Red arrows show processes that warm the atmosphere and blue arrows show those that cool the atmosphere. Question: Why do you think a decrease in snow and ice cover would increase the average temperature of the atmosphere?

54. What Role for Oceans in Climate Change? Absorb CO2 CO2 solubility decreases with increasing temperature Upper ocean getting warmer

55. 15-5 What Are Some Possible Effects of a Projected Climate Change? Concept 15-5 The projected change in the earth’s climate during this century could have severe and long-lasting consequences, including increased drought and flooding, rising sea levels, and shifts in locations of agriculture and wildlife habitats.

56. Potential Severe Consequences Rapid projected temperature increase 2 Cº inevitable 4 Cº possible Effects will last for at least 1,000 years

58. Harmful Effects of Global Warming (1) Excessive heat Drought Ice and snow melt Rising sea levels Extreme weather

59. Harmful Effects of Global Warming (2) Threat to biodiversity Food production may decline Change location of agricultural crops Threats to human health

63. 15-6 What Can We Do to Slow Projected Climate Change? Concept 15-6 To slow the rate of projected climate change, we can increase energy efficiency, sharply reduce greenhouse gas emissions, rely more on renewable energy resources, and slow population growth.

64. Options to Deal with Climate Change Two approaches: Drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions Develop strategies to reduce its harmful effects Mix both approaches Governments beginning to act

65. Figure 15.23: Methods for slowing projected climate change during this century (Concept 15-6). Questions: Which five of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.23: Methods for slowing projected climate change during this century (Concept 15-6). Questions: Which five of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

66. Reducing the Threat of Climate Change (1) Improve energy efficiency to reduce fossil fuel use Shift from coal to natural gas Improve energy efficiency Shift to renewable energy sources

67. Reducing the Threat of Climate Change (2) Transfer appropriate technology to developing countries Reduce deforestation Sustainable agriculture and forestry Reduce poverty Slow population growth

68. Reducing the Threat of Climate Change (3) Decrease CO2 emissions Sequester CO2 Plant trees Agriculture Underground Deep ocean Repair leaking natural gas lines Reduce methane emissions from animals

69. Science Focus: Is Capturing and Storing CO2 the Answer? (1) Global tree planting Restore wetlands Plant fast-growing perennials

70. Science Focus: Is Capturing and Storing CO2 the Answer? (2) Preserve natural forests Seed oceans with iron to promote growth of phytoplankton Sequester carbon dioxide underground and under the ocean floor

71. Figure 15.C: Solutions: some output methods for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from smokestacks and storing it in plants, soil, deep underground reservoirs, and the deep ocean. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.C: Solutions: some output methods for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from smokestacks and storing it in plants, soil, deep underground reservoirs, and the deep ocean. Questions: Which two of these solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

72. Government Roles in Reducing the Threat of Climate Change (1) Regulate carbon dioxide and methane as pollutants Carbon taxes Cap total CO2 emissions Subsidize energy-efficient technologies Technology transfers

73. Government Roles in Reducing the Threat of Climate Change (2) International climate negotiations Kyoto Protocol Act locally Costa Rica U.S. states Large corporations Colleges and universities

75. Figure 15.25: Solutions: ways to prepare for the possible long-term effects of climate change. Question: Which three of these adaptation solutions do you think are the most important? Why?Figure 15.25: Solutions: ways to prepare for the possible long-term effects of climate change. Question: Which three of these adaptation solutions do you think are the most important? Why?

76. 15-7 How Have We Depleted Ozone in the Stratosphere and What Can We Do about It? Concept 15-7A Widespread use of certain chemicals has reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere and allowed more harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth’s surface. Concept 15-7B To reverse ozone depletion, we need to stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals and adhere to the international treaties that ban such chemicals.

77. Human Impact on the Ozone Layer Location and purpose of the ozone layer Blocks UV-A and UV-B Seasonal and long-term depletion of ozone Threat to humans, animals, plants Causes – chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

78. Individuals Matter: Banning of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Chemists Rowland and Molina – Nobel Prize in 1995 Called for ban Remain in atmosphere Rise into stratosphere Break down into atoms that accelerate ozone depletion Stay in stratosphere for long periods Defended research against big industry

79. Former Uses of CFCs Coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators Propellants in aerosol cans Cleaning solutions for electronic parts Fumigants Bubbles in plastic packing foam

82. Reversing Ozone Depletion Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals Slow recovery Montreal Protocol Copenhagen Protocol International cooperation

83. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #1 All countries need to step up efforts to control and prevent outdoor and indoor air pollution.

84. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #2 Reducing the possible harmful effects of projected rapid climate change during this century requires emergency action to cut energy waste, sharply reduce greenhouse gas emissions, rely more on renewable energy resources, and slow population growth.

85. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #3 We need to continue phasing out the use of chemicals that have reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere and allowed more harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth’s surface.