Ch. 10 S. 2: Patterns of Intergroup Relations

1. Ch. 10 S. 2: Patterns of Intergroup Relations Obj: Distinguish between discriminations and prejudice; describe the most common patterns of minority-group treatment.

2. Discrimination and Prejudice Discrimination and prejudice are common features of the minority-group experience. Although the words are often used interchangeably, discrimination and prejudice are two separate but related conditions. Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership. By definition, discrimination involves behaviors. Prejudice is an unsupported generalization about a category of people. Prejudice refers to attitudes. In daily conversation, you might say that you are prejudiced for or against someone or something. Sociologists generally focus on negative forms of prejudice.

3. Discrimination – can be found either on an individual level or on a societal level. Discriminatory acts by individuals range from name-calling and rudeness to acts of violence. In their most extreme forms, such acts can lead to physical harm or even death. For example, between 1882 and 1970, more than 1,170 African Americans were lynched by white mobs in the US. In many cases, those lynched had not committed a crime. Rather, they were attempting to vote, use the same public facilities as white Americans, or had become too successful.

4. Societal discrimination can appear in one of two forms-legal discrimination or institutionalized discrimination. Legal discrimination is upheld by law. Institutionalized discrimination, on the other hand, is an outgrowth of the structure of a society.

5. Institutionalized discrimination is far more resistant to change. Over time, unequal access to the resources of society pushes some minority groups into less-powerful positions. Once this occurs, it is not necessary for the dominant group to consciously discriminate against these groups to maintain a system of inequality. Discrimination thus becomes a part of the social structure. Therefore, institutional discrimination is self-perpetuating and can occur even when the society takes legal steps to end discriminatory practices.

6. Prejudice – negative forms of prejudice often involve stereotypes. A stereotype is an oversimplified, exaggerated, or unfavorable generalization about a group of people. When stereotyping, an individual forms an image of a particular group. For example, a stereotype held by some Americans was that all Irish people were hot-tempered. If individuals are found to differ from the stereotyped group image, they are thought to be exceptions to the rule, rather than proof that the stereotype is wrong.

7. Stereotyping can have grave consequences for society. If people are told often enough and long enough that they or others are socially, mentally, or physically inferior, they may come to believe it. It does not matter whether the accusations are true. Robert K. Merton suggested that a false definition of a situation can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true.

8. If members of a minority group are considered incapable of understanding technical information, they will not be given technical training. As a result, they will lack the skills needed to gain employment in highly technical occupations. This lack of employment in technical fields will then be taken as proof of the group’s inability to understand technical information.

9. For the dominant group in society, prejudice serves as a justification for discriminatory actions. Once individuals come to believe negative claims against members of a minority group, they may find it easier to accept open acts of discrimination. Prejudicial beliefs that serve as justifications for open discrimination often take the form of racism - the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is naturally superior to other races or ethnic groups. Throughout history, racism has been used as a justification for atrocities such as slavery and genocide.

10. While prejudice and discrimination are related, they do not always go hand-in-hand. According to Merton, individuals can combine discrimination and prejudice in four possible ways. • The active bigot is prejudiced and openly discriminatory. • The timid bigot is prejudiced but is afraid to discriminate because of societal pressures. • The fair-weather liberal is not prejudiced but discriminates anyway because of societal pressure. • The all-weather liberal is not prejudiced and does not discriminate.

11. Sources of Discrimination and Prejudice Various explanations have been offered for the development of discrimination and prejudice. Sociologists often organize these explanations into three broad categories; sociological, psychological, and economic.

12. Sociological explanations – most sociological explanations of discrimination and prejudice focus on the social environment. This environment includes the accepted social norms of society and the process through which these norms are learned – socialization. In some societies, prejudices are embedded in the social norms. Such norms describe the ways in which members of the society are expected to relate to members of certain out-groups. People become prejudiced simply by internalizing these norms.

13. Even if prejudice is not a part of the culture of society at large, it may be a norm of groups within society. People often become prejudiced to maintain their group membership. They may also become prejudiced through their identification with a reference group that encourages and supports such behavior.

14. Psychological Explanations – Individual behavior provides the focus for psychological explanations of prejudice and discrimination. One such explanation suggests that people are prejudiced because they have a particular kind of personality. In a survey of a broad sample of American society, a team of psychologists lead by Theodore Adorno found that prejudiced people share certain characteristics. These characteristics made up what Adorno called the authoritarian personality. Authoritarians are strongly conformist, have a great respect for authority, and are highly likely to follow the orders of those in authority. They also exhibit a great deal of anger and are likely to blame others for their problems.

15. Another psychological explanation suggests that prejudice may be the product of frustration and anger. When individuals have problems but cannot confront the real causes of those problems, they often turn their frustration and anger on innocent groups. The practice of placing the blame for one’s troubles on an innocent individual or group is called scapegoating. By focusing on scapegoats, people sometimes gain a sense of superiority at a time when they are feeling powerless.

16. Minority groups often become scapegoats for a variety of reasons. • First, they are easy to recognize because of their physical feature, language, style of dress, or religious practices. • Second, they lack power in society and may be unlikely to fight back. • Third, they are often concentrated in one geographic area and therefore are easily accessible and an easy target. • Fourth, they often have been the target of scapegoating in the past, so a certain amount of hostility toward them already exists. • Finally, they often represent something – such as an idea, attitude, or way of life – that the scapegoater does not like.

17. Economic Explanations – According to economic explanations, prejudice and discrimination arise out of competition for scarce resources.

18. For example, during the second half of the 1800s large numbers of Chinese workers immigrated to the West Coast of the US. In the beginning, they were welcomed as an inexpensive source of labor. However, when jobs become scarce many white workers began to view the Chinese immigrants as economic competitors. Many white Americans reacted to this competition with open violence. This discrimination was legalized with the passage of laws restricting Chinese immigration.

19. Conflict theorists suggest that the dominant group, to protect its position, encourages competition for resources among minority groups. This competition creates a split labor market, in which workers are set against each other along racial and ethnic lines. In the struggle for jobs, the various minority groups come to fear, distrust, and hate one another.

20. Patterns of Minority Group Treatment Official policies toward minority groups within a society vary widely. The most common patterns of minority treatment include cultural pluralism, assimilation, legal protection, segregation, subjugation, population transfer and extermination.

21. Cultural Pluralism – One response to ethnic and racial diversity is cultural pluralism. This policy allows each group within society to keep its unique cultural identity. Switzerland provides an example of cultural pluralism in action. Switzerland has three official languages – French, German, and Italian – one language for each of its three major ethnic groups. These groups live together peacefully and are extremely loyal to Switzerland. Furthermore, none of the groups has taken to a dominant or minority role in Swiss society.

22. Assimilation – In many societies, racial and ethnic minorities attempt to hold onto some of their unique cultural features. However, official policies do not always favor such efforts. For example, at one time in the US it was hoped that the various groups that make up American society could be blended into a single people with a common culture. This hope formed the basis of the image of America as a “melting pot.” the blending of culturally distinct groups into a single group with a common culture and identity is called assimilation.

23. In most societies, some assimilation occurs voluntarily. Over time, the various groups within society exchange many cultural traits as a natural outcome of daily interaction. On the other hand, attempts to force assimilation often lead to conflict.

24. Legal Protection – Many countries have taken legal steps to ensure that the rights of minority groups are protected. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 are examples of such legislation in the US. Affirmative action programs are another example of legal efforts to achieve equal rights.

25. Segregation – Policies that physically separate a minority group from the dominant group are referred to as segregation. Under segregation, the minority group is forbidden to live in the same areas as the dominant group and cannot use the same public facilities. Sociologists recognize two types of segregation. De jure segregation is based on laws. Segregation based on informal norms is called de facto segregation.

26. Subjugation – Some countries engage in subjugation – the maintaining of control over a group through force. Slavery – the ownership of one person by another – is the most extreme form of subjugation. Examples of slavery can be found throughout history.

27. Population Transfer Sometimes the dominant group in a society separates itself from a minority group by transferring the minority population to a new territory. This policy can be carried out indirectly or directly. With indirect transfer, the dominant group makes life for minorities so miserable that they simply leave. Direct transfer, on the other hand, involves the use of force. In some cases, people are forcibly moved to new locations within the country. An example of direct transfer in the US is the resettlement of American Indians on reservations during the 1800s.

28. Extermination The most extreme response to the existence of minority groups within a country is extermination. When the goal of extermination is the intentional destruction of the entire targeted population, it is referred to as genocide. This kind of extermination has been attempted many times, and sometimes achieved, throughout history. In the last years of the 1900s, some dominant groups have combined population transfer and extermination in a practice called ethnic cleansing. This practice involves removing a group form a particular area through terror, expulsion, and mass murder.