CH. 8

1. CH. 8 IDENTIFYING DNA AS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

2. CH. 5 & 6 REVIEW • ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: • 1. What macromolecule group does DNA & RNA belong in? • 2. What monomer do we use to assemble the macromolecule group from question #1.

3. CH. 5 & 6 REVIEW • ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: • 3. What is a nucleotide? • 4. What would a nucleotide for DNA contain? • 5. What would a nucleotide for RNA contain?

4. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Griffith finds a “transforming principle.” - NOTES

5. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Griffith finds a “transforming principle.”- QUESTION & ANSWER: • 1. What was “transformed” in Griffith’s experiment? • 2. Explain how the results support the experimenters conclusion.

6. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Avery Identifies DNA as the transforming principle - NOTES

7. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Avery Identifies DNA as the transforming principle – QUESTION & ANSWERS: • 1. How did Avery and his group identify the transforming principle? • 2. Explain how the results support their conclusions for the transforming principle.

8. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Hershey & Chase confirm that DNA is the genetic material – NOTES

9. Ch. 8.1 – Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material • Hershey & Chase confirm that DNA is the genetic material – QUESTIONS & ANSWERS: • 1. Summarize how Hershey & chase confirmed that DNA is the genetic material. • 2. Summarize why the bacteriophage was an excellent choice for research to determine whether genes are made of DNA or proteins? • 3. Explain how the results support their conclusions.

10. LESSON OBJECTIVE • 1. What did Hersey & Chase know about bacteriophages that led them to use these viruses in their DNA experiments?

11. 8.2 – Structure of DNA • DNA is composed of 4 types of nucleotides (monomer): • Nucleotide composed of: • __________________ group • ______________________ • ______________________

12. DNA is composed of 4 types of nucleotides con’t. • Nucleotide in _________________ is composed of: • ____________________________________________________ group • __________________________________________________________ • ____________________________________________________ base • _________________________________________________ = C • _________________________________________________ = T • _________________________________________________ = A • _________________________________________________ = G • Nucleotide in __________________ is composed of: • ____________________________________________________ group • ____________________________________________________ sugar • Nitrogen base • Cytosine = C • ____________________________________ = U (replaces thymine) • Adenine = A • Guanine = G • Letter abbreviations refer both to the base & to the nucleotides that contain that base

13. DNA is composed of 4 types of nucleotides con’t. • CHARGAFF’S RULE: • ________ = __________ • ________ = __________ • QUESTION: • What is the only difference among the 4 DNA nucleotides? • Which part of a DNA molecule carries the genetic instructions that are unique for each individual; the sugar-phosphate backbone or the nitrogen-containing bases? Explain.

14. Watson & Crick Developed an accurate model of DNA - NOTES

15. Watson & Crick Developed an accurate model of DNA – QUESTION & ANSWER: • What bases are considered pyrimidines & purines? • Pyrimidines = ____________________ • Purines = ________________________ • How did the Watson & Crick Model explain Chargaff’s rules?

16. Nucleotides always pair in the same way. • DNA nucleotides of a single strand are joined together by _________________ bonds connecting the _____________ of one nucleotide to the _______________ of the next nucleotide. • Alternating sugars & phosphates form the sides of a double helix sort of like a ________________________________. • DNA double helix is held together by ____________________ bonds between the __________________ in the middle.

17. Nucleotides always pair in the same way – QUESTIONS & ANSWERS: • What sequence of bases would pair with the following sequence: T T A C G C G A C

18. 8.3 – DNA Replication • Replication _____________________ the genetic information • Watson & Crick’s experiments showed that one strand of DNA is used as a ______________________ to build the other strand • Guarantees that each strand of DNA is identical.

19. Proteins carry out the process of replication • How : • DNA is unzipped at numerous places (H bonds broken) • Free floating nucleotides pair with the exposed bases (template strands) • ________________________________ bonds the nucleotides together to form the new strands that are complementary to the template strand (original strand). • Creates 2 identical molecules of DNA. • Each DNA molecule has an __________________ & a ____________________________________. • Why DNA replication is called _____________________________ replication.

20. DNA Replication

21. Replication is fast & accurate • Replication is fast because the DNA strand is opened at ______________ of different points & allowing nucleotides to be added at many spots at the same time. • ________________ is carried out at the _____ time that nucleotides are added. • DNA polymerase can detect _________ & make _________________________. • Pg. 238, fig. 8.9 shows this process

22. 8.4 TRANSCRIPTION • _______________ carries DNA’s instructions • ______________________________________ • Information flows from ________ to _______ to _____________________________ • Transcription converts a DNA message into an intermediate molecule, called RNA. • Translation interprets an RNA message into a string of ____________________, called a polypeptide. • Either a single polypeptide or many polypeptides working together make up a __________________________.

23. RNA carries DNA’S instructions con’t. • Prokaryotic cells: • Replication, transcription, and translation all occur in the ___________ at approximately the ___________ time. • Eukaryotic cells: • Replication, transcription, and translation occur in ________________ locations. • Replication & transcription – ________ • Translation – occurs in the __________

24. RNA carries DNA’s instructions con’t. • RNA acts as an intermediate link between _______ in the nucleus & _____________ synthesis in the cytoplasm. • Gets used then destroyed. • RNA is ____________________, contains ribose sugar & has _________________ instead of thymine • A (DNA) = U (RNA) • T(DNA)= A(RNA) • G (DNA) = C (RNA) • C (DNA) = G (RNA)

25. Transcription makes ___ types of ____ • ___________________ is the process of copying a sequence of DNA to produce a complementary strand of RNA. • Part of the chromosome, called a _______, is transferred into an ____ ____________________________. • Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerase.

26. Transcription produces 3 major types of RNA molecules • _________________ (messenger RNA) – an intermediate message that is translated to form a ________________ • ______ (ribosomal RNA) – forms part of ribosomes, a cell’s protein factories • ____ (transfer RNA) – brings __________ _____ from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help make the growing ___________. • Pg. 241, Fig. 8.11 visualizes transcription

27. Transcription vs. replication • Similarities • Happen in __________________________ of eukaryotic cells • Need enzymes to begin the process • ______________________________ the DNA double helix • Complementary ______________________ to the DNA strand • _______________________________________ by the cell • Differences • ________________ makes sure each new cell will have ____ complete set of genetic instructions & occurs only once during each round of the cell cycle. • ___________________ could make hundreds or thousands of copies of certain proteins or the rRNA or tRNA molecules need to make _______________ based on the demands of the cell, using a ____________ stranded complementary rRNA strand.

28. 8.5 TRANSLATION • Amino acids are coded by ______________ base sequences • Translation is the process that converts, or translates, an mRNA message into a ___________________________________. • Could be ___ or _________ polypeptides to make up a protein • Language of nucleic acids: • DNA – uses 4 nucleotides = A, G, C, & T • RNA – uses r nucleotides = A, G, C, & U • Language of proteins uses ________________

29. Triplet Code • Genetic code uses ____________, which is read in groups of ___ nucleotide bases • Codon is a 3 nucleotide sequence that codes for a particular ___________________, referred to as the __________________. • First 2 nucleotides are usually the ____________ important in coding for an amino acid • ________________________ – signals the start of translation and the amino acid is _______________________________ • 3 _________ codons – signal the end of the amino acid chain. • If reading frame is ______________, changes protein or even can prevent a protein from being made. • Almost all organisms, including viruses, follows the _________ ______________________. • This allows scientists to insert a gene from 1 organism into another organism to make a functional protein.

30. GENETIC CODE

31. Genetic Code

32. DETERMINE WHAT AMINO ACID SEQUENCES ARE CREATED FROM THE FOLLOWING STRINGS OF NUCLEOTIDES • 1) A U G A C C A A C A G C • 2) A U G C CCC A A U G A

33. Amino acids are linked to become a protein • Review: • mRNA is a short lived molecule that carries ______________ from ________ in the nucleus to the ________________ • mRNA message is read in groups of 3 nucleotides called ___________________ • How it translates the codon into an amino acid requires the use of _______ & __________ molecules

34. Amino acids are linked to become a protein • Ribosomes are made of a combination of rRNA & proteins & they catalyze the reaction that forms the bonds between amino acids. • _____________________ have a large & small subunit that fit together & pull the mRNA strand through. • Small unit holds the mRNA strand & the large subunit holds onto the growing protein • _____________ carries _____________________________ from the cytoplasm to the ribosome • Has an L shape to the tRNA molecule, one end of the L is attached to the specific amino acid & the other end of the L, is called the ____________________, which recognizes a specific codon. • Anticodon is a set of 3 nucleotides that is complementary to an ___________________________ codon. • PG. 246, Fig. 8.16 Translation, Read pg. 247

35. 8.6 – GENE EXPRESSION & REGULATION • mRNA processing • Important part of gene regulation in eukaryotic cells is RNA processing. • mRNA that is produced by transcription needs to be edited • _____________ are nucleotide segments that code for parts of the __________________________. • _________________ are nucleotide segments that are located ______________________ the exons • Introns are _________________________ from mRNA before it leaves the nucleus. • Exons are ______________________________ back together

36. 8.7 MUTATIONS • Some mutations affect a single gene & others affect the entire chromosome • ________________________ is a change in an organism’s DNA • Types of gene mutations: • __________________ mutation – a mutation in which _____ nucleotide is _____________________________ for another. • DNA polymerase could find & correct mistake, if not may permanently change an organism’s DNA • __________________ mutation – involves the ____________ or _________________________ of a nucleotide in the DNA sequence • Affects the polypeptide more than a point mutation (substitution) • Causes the ___________________________ from point of insertion or deletion to change the remaining ___________

37. MUTATIONS • ORIGINAL NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE: • A U G C C G U U A A C G C G A U C C G G • READS: • MUTATED NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE: • A U G C A C G U U A A C G C G A U C C G G • READS:

38. Types of chromosomal mutations: • Gene _______________________________: • During ____________ chromosomes do _______ align & the chromosomal segments are different sizes. The chromosome receiving the __________ segment would have part of the chromosome that is _________________________________. • Gene deletion: • During crossing over chromosomes do not align & the chromosomal segments are different sizes. The chromosome receiving the _____________ segment would have part of the chromosome that is ________________________________________. • Translocation: • A piece of one chromosome ____________________ to a nonhomologous chromosome.

39. Mutations may or may not affect phenotype. • _______________________ – Collection of all of an organism’s physical characteristics. • Ex: black hair, blue eyes, attached ear lobes. • Chromosomal mutations • Usually have ______________ affect on organisms • Ex: may break a gene causing it ___________ to function • Ex: may create a ______ hybrid gene with a new function • Ex: may cause a gene to be more or less active • Gene mutations – could have a bad affect, no affect, or create a beneficial mutation • Could change the ______________________ for an enzyme & now it cannot accept the ______________________ • Could affect how protein ___________ & possibly destroying the protein’s ____________________________ • Could create a premature ___, making protein nonfunctional

40. Impact on offspring • Mutations can happen in _______ cells & in _______ cells. • Body cell mutations ___________ affect that individual • Germ cell mutations may be passed to ______________ • Can be source of ________________________, which is the basis of ______________________________. • Will affect the ______________________ of offspring • Could be ______________& the offspring do _____ develop properly or could die before reproducing • Could be mutations not well suited to environment & the alleles will be _________ from the population • Could be a mutation that is well suited to environment & the alleles will be _______________ in the population

41. Mutations can be caused by several factors • ______________________ – agents in the environment that can change DNA. • Speed up the rate of replication _______ • ____________________ DNA strands • Cause __________________________ • Types of mutagens: • _______________________________ • Industrial _______________________