Punctuation and Mechanics

1. Punctuation and Mechanics Punctuation and mechanics are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud. The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time and are constantly evolving. The major punctuation marks are full stops, question mark, commas, exclamation marks, colons, semi-colons, apostrophes and dashes.

2. PERIOD (Full stop) Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence or at the end of polite command. Declarative sentence: The banjo, a popular folk instrument, is native to America. Polite command: Think of some other instruments used by folk singers. • EXCLAMATION POINT Use an exclamation point to indicate surprise. You broke my guitar!

3. How I love Leonard Bernstein’s music in West Side Story! Help! Don’t you dare go without me! • QUESTION MARK Use a question mark to indicate a direct question. Is Aaron Copland an American composer? Did Copland write Appalachian Spring? • COLON Colons are used to introduce:

4. 1. Lists Use a colon to introduce a list, especially after a statement that uses such words as these, the following, or as follows. Listen to a recording of one of the following black concert vocalists: Paul Robeson, Grace Bumbry, Or Leontyne Price. Do not use a colon if he list immediately follows a verb or a preposition. Three important black composers are Ulysses Kay, Scott Joplin, and Arthur Cunningham.

5. Illustration or restatement Use a colon to introduce material that illustrates, explains, or restates preceding material. Many African instruments are made of unusual materials: Pottery, shells, gourds, and beads are used to make African percussion instruments. • Colons before Quotations Use a colon to introduce a long or formal quotation. A formal quotation is often preceded by such words as these, the following, oras follows. Patrick Henry’s speech before the Virginia Provincial Convention closed with the following patriotic exclamation: “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!”

6. Other uses of colons Use a colon between the hour and the minute in writing time, between chapter and verse in making biblical references, and after salutation of a business letter. 5:40 a.m. Ruth 3: 4-18 8:30 p.m. Dear Sir or Madam: Matthew 2:5 Dear Ford Motor Company: • SEMICOLON Use a semicolon to separate main clauses that are not joined by the coordinating conjunction and, but, or, nor, yet and for. George Gershwin wrote music during the Jazz Age; his compositions were influenced by jazz music.

7. Use a semicolon to separate main clause joined by conjunctive adverbs (such as however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore, and consequently) or adverbial expressions (such as for example, that is, and in fact). Much of jazz music is improvised; however, all the instruments are played in the same key. • SEMICOLON and COMMAS Use a semicolon to separate the items in a series when these items contain commas. Three important black musicians are Leontyne Price, an opera singer; Henry Lewis, a conductor; and Andre Watts, a pianist.

8. Use semicolon to separate two main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction when such clauses contain several commas. Arthur Mitchell, as a leading dancer with the New York City Ballet, danced in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Agon, and Western Symphony; but he is also famous as the founder of the Dancer Theater of Harlem, an internationally acclaimed dance ceremony.

9. COMMA Comma and compound sentences Use commas between the main clauses in a compound sentence. Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet or for) that joins two main clauses. The Marx Brothers were a comedy team, but each of them did wok on his own. You may omit the comma between very short main clauses unless it is needed to avoid confusion.

10. I prepared the meal and I washed the dishes. (clear) I prepared the meal and the dishes needed washing. (confusing) I prepared the meal, and the dishes needed washing (clear) Commas in a series Use comma to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Director D. W. Griffith’s silent film Intolerance is insightful, expressive, and powerful. Early movie directors filmed adaptations of plays, short stories, novels, and nonfiction works.

11. No commas are necessary when all of the items are connected by conjunctions. The film Intolerance is insightful and expressive and powerful. Nouns used in pairs (spaghetti and meatballs, bacon and eggs, pen and ink) are considered single units and should not be divided by commas. The pairs themselves must be set off from other nouns or groups of nouns in a series. I ate bread and butter, ham and eggs, and fresh fruit every morning.

12. Commas and coordinating adjectives Place a comma between coordinate adjectives preceding a noun. She wore a long, thick scarf. She wore a long, soft, thick scarf. Do not use a comma between adjectives preceding a noun if they sound unnatural with their order reversed or with and between them. Adjectives that do not need commas between them usually describe different aspects of the word to which they refer for example, size, age, and material. She wore a long wool scarf.

13. Commas and nonessential elements 1. Adjective clauses Use commas to set off a nonessential adjective clause. A nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause can be considered an extra clause because it gives additional information about a noun. An extra clause does not change, but adds to, the basic meaning of a sentence. Therefore, it is set off by commas. Hedda Hopper, who acted in a number of American films, was famous for her collection of fabulous hats.

14. Do not set off an essential adjective clause. An essential (restrictive) clause gives necessary information about a noun. It is needed to convey the exact meaning of a sentence. The person who actually films a movie is called the camera operator. [essential clause: who actually films a movie. • Appositives Use commas to set off an appositive if it is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. A nonessential (nonrestrictive) appositive can be considered an extra appositive; it calls for commas.

15. James Wong Howe,a famous American camera operator, was born in China. An essential (restrictive) appositive gives necessary information about a noun and is not set off. James Wong Howe operated the camera for Martin Ritt’s film The Molly Maguires. • Participles, infinitives, and their phrases Use commas to set off participles, infinitives, and their phrases if the words are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Barbara Loden, having acted, became a director. [participle]

16. Robert Redford,earning fame as an actor, turned to directing. [participial phrase] Redford played a skier in Downhill Racer and an aging baseball star in The Natural, to name just two of his many acting credits. [infinitive] Do not set off participles, infinitives, and their phrases if they are essential to the meaning of the sentence. The most famous documentary directed by Robert J. Flaherty is Nanook of the North. [participial phrase tells which documentary among those that Flaherty directed] Flaherty made the film to show the realities of Eskimo life. [infinitive phrase tells why]

17. To film Nanook of the North was s difficult undertaking. [infinitive phrase used as subject] Commas with Interjections and conjunctive adverbs Use commas to set off interjections (such as yes, no, and well), parenthetical words and expressions (such as however, therefore, moreover, on the other hand, and for example), and conjunctive adverbs, and adverbial expressions (such as however, therefore, moreover, on the other hand, and for example). Yes, director Francis Ford Coppola is also a scriptwriter. [interjection] He did,for example, write the screenplay for Patton. [parenthetical expression]

18. Commas and Introductory Phrases 1. Prepositional phrases Use a comma after a short introductory prepositional phrase if the sentence would be misread without the comma. During winter, snowstorms are common in New England. [comma needed] In the distance we saw Mount Washington. [comma not needed] Use a comma after a long prepositional phrase or after the final phrase in a succession of phrases. On the rug by the fireplace, a large dog slept.

19. Do not use a comma if the phrase is immediately followed by a verb. On the dresser lay an ivory mirror. On the rug by the fireplace slept a large dog. 2. Participles and participial phrases Use a comma after an introductory participle or participial phrase. Smiling, I watched Diane Keaton clown in the film Sleeper. Beginning as a comic actress, Sally Field graduated to more serious roles.

20. Commas and Adverb Clauses Use commas to set off all introductory adverb clauses. Use commas to set off internal adverb clauses that interrupt the flow of a sentence. Although Stanley Kurbrick is an American director, he lives and works in Great Britain. Ruby Keeler, although she retired in 1941, returned to Broadway in 1970. In general, do not set off an adverb clause at the end of a sentence unless the clause is parenthetical or the sentence would be misread without comma. Let’s go to the movies tomorrow if we have time.

21. The new Meryl Streep film is supposed to be good,if we can believe the reviews. [comma before parenthetical clause] I was enjoying the movie, when the film projector suddenly broke. [comma to avoid misreading] Use a comma if an adverb clause at the end of a sentence begins with although, though or while meaning “whereas.” Also use a comma if the clause begins with since or as and tells why. The acting was superb, although the plot made little sense. Some Walt Disney films star animated cartoon characters, while others star human actors.

22. Talented scriptwriters are highly paid, since their talents are in such great demand. Do not use a comma before while, as orsinceif the clause tells when. Animation techniques have improved since the first Walt Disney cartoon was shown. Comma and Antithetical Phrases Use commas to set off an antithetical phrase. An antithetical phrase uses a word such as not or unlike to make a contrast. Augusta, not Bangor, is the capital of Maine. Unlike Kansas, Colorado is very mountainous.

23. Commas and Specifying Words and Phrases Use comma to set off specifying words and phrases 1. Title of people Use commas to set off titles when they follow a person’s name. Henry VIIl, King of England, was a prolific songwriter and an accomplished musician. 2. Addresses, geographical terms, and dates Use commas to separate the various parts of an address, a geographical term, or a date. The company is located at 840 Pierce Street, Southfield, Michigan, and has another office in Lansing, Michigan.

24. Paris, France, is the setting of Hemingway’s works. On Friday, October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the New World island now called San Salvador. Do not use commas if only the month and the day or only the month and the year are given. In July 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed. 3. References Use commas to set off the parts of a reference that direct the reader to the exact source. The theme is expressed in The Scarlet Letter, pages 3-4.

25. Commas and Tag Questions Use commas to set off a tag question. A tag question (such as shouldn’t I? or have you?) emphasized and implied answer to the statement preceding it. The Sound of Music starred Julie Andrews, didn’t it? Commas in Letter Writing Place a comma after the salutation of an informal letter and after the closing of all the letters. Dear Mario, Yours truly Love

26. DASH Indicate the dash in typing by two hyphen(—). Do not place a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period before or after a dash. Dashes to Emphasize Use a dash to set off and emphasize supplemental information or parenthetical comments. Yellowstone Park’s geyser Old Faithful erupted faithfully—every hour on the hour—for over eighty years. Dashes to Signal Hesitation Use a dash to indicate an abrupt change in thought within a sentence or to show a hesitation of faltering in dialogue.

27. “I — I never was so scared,” she stammered. PARENTHESES Use parentheses to set off extra material. Use parentheses for material that is not intended to be part of the main statement but is nevertheless important enough to include. Mary Jane Cannary(“Calamity Jane”) was a good friend of Wild Bill Hickok. A complete sentence within parentheses is not capitalized and needs no period if it is contained within another sentence. If a sentence is parentheses stands by itself, both a capital letter and a period are needed

28. Mary Jane Cannary(she was known as Calamity Jane) was a good friend of Wild Bill Hickok. Parentheses with other marks of punctuation • With a comma, semicolon, or colon Always place a comma, a semicolon, or a colon after the closing parenthesis . Writer Bret Harte is associated with the West (his stories include “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” and “The Luck of Roaring Camp”, but he was born in Albany, New York. 2. With a period, a question mark or an exclamationpoint

29. 2. With a period, a question mark and an exclamation point Place a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point inside the closing parenthesis if it is part of the parenthetical expression. The most famous guide of he Lewis and Clark expedition was Sacajawea. (A novel based on her life was published a few years ago.) Owatonna is the name of a Native American princess (a member of the Santee tribe?) who lived hundreds of years ago. Place a period, a question mark, or an exclamation outside the closing parenthesis if it part of the entire sentence.

30. The code of laws that governed Iroquois society was the Great Binding Law (known as the Iroquois Constitution). How surprised I was to learn that the British still call corn maize (which come from the West Indian word for corn)! BRACKETS Use brackets to enclose information that your insert into a quotation from someone else’s work. We cannot be free until they [all Americans] are. -James Baldwin

31. Use brackets to enclose a parenthetical expression within parentheses. The name Oregon comes from the Algonquin word wauregan (which means “beautiful water” [referring to the Columbia River). ELLIPSIS POINTS Use a series of spaced points called ellipsis points to indicate the omission of material in a quotation. Use three spaced points if the omission is at the beginning of a sentence. Use the correct punctuation (if any) plus three spaced points if the omission is in the middle or at the end of a sentence. In using a period plus three spaced points, always put the period first, and do not put a space before it.

32. Quoted with ellipses: In explaining his reasons for retiring to Walden, Henry David Thoreau said, “…I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.” Thoreau said, “I did not with to live what was not life…; not did I wish to practice resignation, unless it was quite necessary.” Thoreau said, “I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life…”

33. QUOTATION MARKS Quotation Marks for Direct Quotation Use quotation marks only around quoted material, not around an introductory or an explanatory remark. Generally separate such a remark from the actual quotation with a comma. “Weave us a garment of brightness,” states a Native American song. Phil Rizzuto optimistically said, “They still can’t steal first base.” When a quotation is interrupted by explanatory words such as he said, or she wrote, use two sets of quotation marks.

34. Separate each part of the quotation from the interrupting phrase with two marks of punctuation, such as two commas or a comma and a period. If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, begin it with a capital letter. “The secret of my success,” claims baseball pitcher Lefty Gomez, “was clean living and a fast-moving outfield.” “The Lord prefers common-looking people,” Abraham Lincoln once said. “That is the reason he made so many of them.” Do not use quotation marks in an indirect quotation (a quotation that does not repeat a speaker’s exact wording).

35. Original quotation: Carl Sandburg once said, “Poetry is the achievement of the synthesis of hyacinths and biscuits.” Indirect quotation: Carl Sandburg once said that poetry was the achievement of the synthesis of hyacinths and biscuits. Using single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. In speaking to her students, the teacher said, “Benjamin Franklin once wrote ‘Lose no time; be always employed in something useful’” In writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph and use a new quotation marks every time the speaker changes.

36. “How do you, Mr. Martin. Are you paying New York a visit? Or do you live here?” My father quickly shook hands with Jerome, somewhat to Jerome’s surprise. “I am just up for the afternoon, thank you. I live in a hick town in Pennsylvania you never heard of.” “I see, sir. A quick visit.”… “Fine,” I didn’t duplicate my father’s mistake of offering to shake hands. John Updike Quotation Marks for Titles of Short Works

37. Use a quotation marks to enclose titles of short works, such as short stories, short poems, essays, newspaper and magazine articles, book chapters, songs, and single episodes of a television series. “To Build a Fire” [short story] “Ahab” [chapter] “Fire and Ice” [poem] “The Star-Spangled Banner” [song] “Self-Reliance” [essay] Quotation Marks for Unusual Expressions Use a quotation marks to enclose unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original expressions. Karen told her younger brother to “beat it.”

38. Quotation Marks for Definitions Use quotation marks to encolse a definition that is stated directly. Ukulele comes from the Hawaiian word meaning “flea.” Quotation Marks with Other Marks of Punctuation 1. With a comma or period Place a comma or a period inside the closing quotation mark. “Love your Neighbor,” Benjamin Franklin advised, “yet don’t putt your Hedge.” 2. With a semicolon or colon

39. Place a semicolon or a colon outside the closing quotation mark. Chuck Berry wrote “Johnny B. Goode”; the song was one of he first examples of rock and roll music. There is only one main character in Ernest Hemingway’s story “Big Two-Hearted River”: Nick Adams. 3. With a question mark or an exclamation point Place a question mark or an exclamation point inside the close quotation mark when it is part of the quotation. We read Leonard Bernstein’s essay “What Makes Music American?”

40. Walt Whitman’s poem “Beat! Beat! Drum! is about the Civil War. Place a question mark or an exclamation point outside the closing quotation mark it is part of the entire sentence. Have you read Gwendolyn Brooks’ poem “We Real Cool”? How I adore old Cole Porter songs like “Anything Goes”! If both the sentence and the quotation at the end of the sentence need a question mark (or an exclamation point), use only one question mark (or exclamation point), and place it inside the closing quotation mark.

41. Which French poet asked, “Where are the snows of yesterday?” HYPHEN Hyphens for Prefixes and Suffixes A hyphen is not ordinarily used to join a prefix or a suffix to the beginning or end of a word. There are a few exceptions. 1. Prefixes Use a hyphen after a prefix joined to a proper noun or a proper adjective. pro-Western pre-Columbian Generally, do not use a hyphen if the proper name or adjective loses its capital letter when the prefix is added. transatlantic Precambrian

42. Use a hyphen after the prefix anti-when it joins a word beginning with i. Use a hyphen after prefixes all-, ex- (meaning “former”), self-, and, in most cases, vice-. anti-inflation ex-actress vice-consul all-star self-restraint Use a hyphen to avoid confusion between words that look alike but are different in meaning and pronunciation. re-cover the sofa but recover a lost ring re-mark the test paper remark about her illness • Suffixes Use a hyphen to join the suffix –like to a proper noun or to a word ending in double l.

43. Alaska-like weather but clocklike precision a drill-like sound pearllike beads Hyphens in Compound Adjectives Use a hyphen in a compound adjective that precedes the noun it modifies. A compound adjective that follows that noun is usually not hyphenated. up-to-date magazine but The magazine is up to date. plum-colored shirt The shirt is plum colored.

44. Compound adjectives beginning with well-, ill-, or little- are usually not hyphenated. an ill-tempered man but a rather ill tempered man a well-educated person a very well educated person An expression made up of adverb ending in –lyand an adjective is not hyphenate. a badly torn blanket a happily married couple Hyphens in Numbers • Compound numbers Hyphenate any spelled-out cardinal or ordinal compound numbers to ninety-nine and ninety-ninth.

45. 2. With a period, a question mark and an exclamation point Place a period, a question mark, or an exclamationpoint inside the closing parenthesis if it is part of the parenthetical expression. The most famous guide of he Lewis and Clark expedition was Sacajawea. (A novel based on her life was published a few years ago.) Owatonna is the name of a Native American princess (a member of the Santee tribe?) who lived hundreds of years ago. Place a period, a question mark, or an exclamation outside the closing parenthesis if it part of the entire sentence.

46. The code of laws that governed Iroquois society was the Great Binding Law (known as the Iroquois Constitution). How surprised I was to learn that the British still call corn maize (which come from the West Indian word for corn)! BRACKETS Use brackets to enclose information that your insert into a quotation from someone else’s work. We cannot be free until they [all Americans] are. -James Baldwin

47. Use brackets to enclose a parenthetical expression within parentheses. The name Oregon comes from the Algonquin word wauregan (which means “beautiful water” [referring to the Columbia River). ELLIPSIS POINTS Use a series of spaced points called ellipsis points to indicate the omission of material in a quotation. Use three spaced points if the omission is at the beginning of a sentence. Use the correct punctuation (if any) plus three spaced points if the omission is in the middle or at the end of a sentence. In using a period plus three spaced points, always put the period first, and do not put a space before it.

48. Quoted with ellipses: In explaining his reasons for retiring to Walden, Henry David Thoreau said, “…I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.” Thoreau said, “I did not with to live what was not life…; not did I wish to practice resignation, unless it was quite necessary.” Thoreau said, “I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life…”

49. QUOTATION MARKS Quotation Marks for Direct Quotation Use quotation marks only around quoted material, not around an introductory or an explanatory remark. Generally separate such a remark from the actual quotation with a comma. “Weave us a garment of brightness,” states a Native American song. Phil Rizzuto optimistically said, “They still can’t steal first base.” When a quotation is interrupted by explanatory words such as he said, or she wrote, use two sets of quotation marks.

50. Separate each part of the quotation from the interrupting phrase with two marks of punctuation, such as two commas or a comma and a period. If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, begin it with a capital letter. “The secret of my success,” claims baseball pitcher Lefty Gomez, “was clean living and a fast-moving outfield.” “The Lord prefers common-looking people,” Abraham Lincoln once said. “That is the reason he made so many of them.” Do not use quotation marks in an indirect quotation (a quotation that does not repeat a speaker’s exact wording).