Welcome to Native American Studies – SOCI 1100 4A

1. Welcome to Native American Studies – SOCI 1100 4A Fall, 2012 Room 239 Fort Omaha Bldg. #10 10/10/12 Hero? Villain? Or Both?

2. Agenda Day #11 • Columbus Day and the aftermath • Genocide Wounded Knee Lost Bird White Clay • Return Quiz • Buffalo Robe – Submit topics

3. Buffalo Robe Project • We will be working on the descriptions for the Fort Omaha Wintercount • Choosing topics • Next week

4. Columbus DayOctober 12, 1492

5. “Christopher Columbus did not discover America – Upwards of one million indigenous folks were already living in the wonderful cultures they helped create throughout North and South America when Columbus was welcomed by some of them who were later enslaved and robbed of all they had when he returned the second time.” Quote from Bob Kinney who describes himself as an “Ever-seeking person … father … journalist … photographer … publicist … graphics person … enjoys a wide range of music and film …” bob.kinney@gmail.com

6. Quincentennial Controversy • Celebrations excluded Native Americans from the planning process • For them, the “invasion” of America signified the beginning of the American Holocaust • Native American reaction has positive outcomes • Revisionist movement – truth in history and inclusion of “facts” other than Euro-American perspective

7. Ethnohistory • Combines the use of data from several fields • Geography • Archival records and reports • Diary entries • Oral history • Biography • Archaeology • Folklore • Ethnography • Integrated picture of social and ethnic processes

8. 500 Years of Injustice • “When Christopher Columbus first set foot on sands of Guanahani Island, he performed a ceremony to ‘take possession’ of the land for the king and queen of Spain.” p. 101 • Based on a religious doctrine • Pope Nicholas V – to declare war on all non-Christians – enemies of the Catholic Church and less than human (1452)

10. Pope Alexander VI Inter Cetera document 1493 • “Discovered people” were to be subjugated and brought into the faith • Missionaries (more when we discuss Acoma) • “Christian Powers viewed indigenous peoples as lawful spoils or prey of their civilized conquerors” • Doctrine of Discovery – British grant to Cabot “take possession” of the lands in spite of occupants currently residing there

11. Court Decisions • Marshall v McIntosh granted sovereignty to EuroAmericans • “upon discovery Indians had lost their rights to sovereignty and only retained the rights of occupancy” • Domestic dependent nations (1831) – did not recognize Indian Nations as free of US control and therefore weakened the meanings of treaties • Indian Removal Act 1835 • Black Hills and the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie

12. Fort Laramie Treaty The terms of the treaty guaranteed ownership of Paha Sapa ("Black Hills") to the Lakota, the removal of military forts along the Bozeman Trail in the Powder River Country, and the establishment—on Lakota land—of the Great Sioux Reservation, a 26-million acre reserve of land that ran from the north line of the state of Nebraska to the forty-sixth parallel, bordered on the east by the Missouri River, and running westward to the hundred and fourth degree of longitude.

14. Moreover, the treaty closed the Powder River Country to military and settlement incursions. The treaty, however, also prophetically designated this same country as "unceded Indian Territory" and therefore left the land in a temporary relation of ownership to the Lakota and outside the official "reservation.”

15. What did it feel like to be invaded?

16. Ghost Dance • Paiute shaman called Wovoka • Wovoka was called the Messiah and he prophesied that the dead would soon join the living in a world in which the Indians could live in the old way surrounded by plentiful game. • A tidal wave of new soil would cover the earth, bury the whites, and restore the prairie. • To hasten the event, the Indians were to dance the Ghost Dance.

17. Ghost Dance • Many dancers wore brightly colored shirts emblazoned with images of eagles and buffaloes. • These "Ghost Shirts" they believed would protect them from the bluecoats' bullets. • During the fall of 1890, the Ghost Dance spread through the Sioux villages of the Dakota reservations, revitalizing the Indians and bringing fear to the whites.

18. White Fear of the Prophesy • A desperate Indian Agent at Pine Ridge wired his superiors in Washington, "Indians are dancing in the snow and are wild and crazy....We need protection and we need it now. The leaders should be arrested and confined at some military post until the matter is quieted, and this should be done now." • The order went out to arrest Chief Sitting Bull at the Standing Rock Reservation. Sitting Bull was killed in the attempt on December 15. • Chief Big Foot was next on the list.

19. Ghost Dance Actual picture versus Artist’s portrayal

20. The ritual dance unified Indian people, even tribes with a tradition of conflict. The solidarity of these groups frightened government officials, whose worst fears were realized years earlier when the Arapahoes, Cheyennes and Sioux came together to defeat Custer. • Perhaps the government was also frightened of the dance’s spiritual power. According to a historian of that time, James Mooney, during one investigation of the ritual dance, U.S. troops reported seeing approximately 125 people at the beginning of the dance, and twice that number at the end, with no one new coming into the circle.

21. When he heard of Sitting Bull's death, Big Foot led his people south to seek protection at the Pine Ridge Reservation. The army intercepted the band on December 28, 1890 and brought them to the edge of the Wounded Knee to camp. • The next morning the chief, racked with pneumonia and dying, sat among his warriors and powwowed with the army officers. Suddenly the sound of a shot pierced the early morning gloom. Within seconds the charged atmosphere erupted as Indian braves scurried to retrieve their discarded rifles and troopers fired volley after volley into the Sioux camp. From the heights above, the army's Hotchkiss guns raked the Indian teepees with grapeshot.

22. Big Foot (Sitanka), a Miniconjou Sioux of Cheyenne River Reservation, South Dakota; half-length, seated, wearing white shirt. Big Foot dead and frozen in snow the day after the Massacre

23. When the smoke cleared and the shooting stopped, approximately 300 Sioux were dead, Big Foot among them. Twenty-five soldiers lost their lives. As the remaining troopers began the grim task of removing the dead, a blizzard swept in from the North. A few days later they returned to complete the job. Scattered fighting continued, but the massacre at Wounded Knee effectively squelched the Ghost Dance movement and ended the Indian Wars.

25. Cemetery at Wounded Knee

26. Wounded Knee Battlefield Today

28. Lost Bird of Wounded Knee • In the spring or summer of 1890, Lost Bird was born somewhere on the prairies of South Dakota. Fate took her to Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge Reservation on Dec. 29, 1890. • The woman who likely was the child’s mother was among the wounded on the Battlefield. • But as she was dying, she and her baby found some scanty shelter from the bitter cold and wind in the bank of a creek. • Four days after the massacre, a rescue party found the infant, miraculously alive, protected by the woman’s frozen body.

29. Lost Bird was adopted by Gen. Leonard Colby and, without her knowledge or consent, his suffragist wife, Clara Bewick Colby. (see Genocide Convention) • The baby’s original name died on the killing field, along with her chance to grow up in her own culture. She became. literally and figuratively, ZintkalaNuni, the Lost Bird. • However, Zintka’s childhood was marred by her exposure to racism, possible abuse from adoptive relatives and the indifference of her father. • Poverty entered into the mix when Gen. Colby abandoned his wife for the child’s nursemaid/governess and failed to provide adequate support for Clara Colby and Zintka.

30. The increasingly restless child endured miserable stays with relatives and at boarding schools and became harder and harder for her mother to control. • At age 17, Zintka was sent back to her father and his new wife in Beatrice, Neb. • The result was disastrous. A few months later, Gen. Colby placed his now-pregnant daughter in a stark and severe reformatory. Her son was stillborn, but the girl remained in the facility for a year.

31. By 1916, Zintka was living in abject poverty. She and her then-husband, who suffered from illness, were trying to make a living in vaudeville. She had had two more children. One died, probably that year, and Zintka gave the other to an Indian woman who was better able to care for him. • Zintka fell ill on Feb. 9, 1920, as an influenza epidemic swept across the nation. On Feb. 14, Valentine’s Day, she died.

32. Lost Bird finally came home in 1991, in an effort spurred in part by author Renee Sansom Flood, author of "Lost Bird of Wounded Knee: Spirit of the Lakota." Her grave was found in California and her remains were returned to South Dakota and buried at the grave site at Wounded Knee. Her tragic story led to the organization of the Lost Bird Society, which helps Native Americans who were adopted outside their culture find their roots. http://www.sdpb.org/Lostbird/summary.asp

33. Genocide Convention • The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 as General Assembly Resolution 260. Article 2 of the Convention defines genocide as • ...any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

34. Killing members of the group; • Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. — Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2.

35. Does genocide continue? Infliction of conditions of life calculated to bring physical destruction

36. Continued Exploitation? • Whiteclay, NE: population 14 people • 4 off sale liquor stores that sell 4.5 million cans of beer a year (approx. 12,500 cans per day). • Whiteclay borders the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, home of the Oglala Lakota • 4 predatory liquor dealers make millions of dollars each year off of the Oglala's and the social costs of their business are experienced on the Pine Ridge side of the border.

37. Unquestionable Injustice • the town of Whiteclay has no legal place for these 12,500 cans of beer to be consumed • You can't drink the beer at any of the off sale liquor stores. • You can't drink it in your car or on the street. • You certainly can't drink alcohol let alone possess it on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. • Despite evidence of daily illegalities there has been almost no police intervention. • The state government of Nebraska enjoys the excess taxes from Whiteclay and yet claims to not have the funds to adequately police the area.

38. The Hidden Massacre of Whiteclay is a YouTube video that was created by the students of Omaha Creighton Prep. • http://www.sociologysource.com/home/tag/institutional-discrimination • http://battleforwhiteclay.org/ • http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/knee.htm

39. Assignments • Topics for Buffalo Robe Project will be chosen on Monday • Week 3 Assignment