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ELEC 2200-002 Digital Logic Circuits Fall 2008 Binary Arithmetic (Chapter 1)

ELEC 2200-002 Digital Logic Circuits Fall 2008 Binary Arithmetic (Chapter 1). Vishwani D. Agrawal James J. Danaher Professor Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 http://www.eng.auburn.edu/~vagrawal vagrawal@eng.auburn.edu.

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ELEC 2200-002 Digital Logic Circuits Fall 2008 Binary Arithmetic (Chapter 1)

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  1. ELEC 2200-002Digital Logic CircuitsFall 2008Binary Arithmetic (Chapter 1) Vishwani D. Agrawal James J. Danaher Professor Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 http://www.eng.auburn.edu/~vagrawal vagrawal@eng.auburn.edu ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  2. Exercises from Lecture 1 • Identify radio frequency (RF), mixed (analog and digital) signal, and digital components in a communications system. • Which parts in computing and communications systems contain digital arithmetic logic circuits? • Where is the binary machine code stored in a digital computer? • What is the difference between sequential and combinational circuits? Which category does the control of a computer belong to? ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  3. Answers • Components of a communications system: • RF: Antenna, duplexer, filter, mixer, local oscillator. • Mixed-signal: ADC, DAC. • Digital: DSP. • Arithmetic logic is contained in DSP and datapath. • Machine code is stored in a memory. • Sequential and combinational circuits: • A sequential circuit contains memory. Its output is determined by input and the content of the memory. • A combinational circuit contains no memory. Its output depends entirely upon the input. • Control of a computer is a sequential circuit. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  4. Why Binary Arithmetic? • Hardware can only deal with binary digits, 0 and 1. • Must represent all numbers, integers or floating point, positive or negative, by binary digits, called bits. • Can devise electronic circuits to perform arithmetic operations: add, subtract, multiply and divide, on binary numbers. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  5. Positive Integers • Decimal system: made of 10 digits, {0,1,2, . . . , 9} 41 = 4×101 + 1×100 255 = 2×102 + 5×101 + 5×100 • Binary system: made of two digits, {0,1} 00101001 = 0×27 + 0×26 + 1×25 + 0×24 +1×23 +0×22 + 0×21 + 1×20 =32 + 8 +1 = 41 11111111 = 255, largest number with 8 binary digits, 28-1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  6. Base or Radix • For decimal system, 10 is called the base or radix. • Decimal 41 is also written as 4110 or 41ten • Base (radix) for binary system is 2. • Thus, 41ten = 1010012 or 101001two • Also, 111ten = 1101111two and 111two = 7ten ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  7. Signed Integers – What Not to Do • Use fixed length binary representation • Use left-most bit (called most significant bit or MSB) for sign: 0 for positive 1 for negative • Example: +18ten = 00010010two –18ten = 10010010two ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  8. Why Not to Use Sign Bit • Sign and magnitude bits should be differently treated in arithmetic operations. • Addition and subtraction require different logic circuits. • Overflow is difficult to detect. • “Zero” has two representations: + 0ten = 00000000two – 0ten = 10000000two • Signed-integers are not used in modern computers. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  9. Integers With Sign – Other Ways • Use fixed-length representation, but no sign bit • 1’s complement: To form a negative number, complement each bit in the given number. • 2’s complement: To form a negative number, start with the given number, subtract one, and then complement each bit, or first complement each bit, and then add 1. • 2’s complement is the preferred representation. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  10. 1’s-Complement • To change the sign of a binary integer simply complement (invert) each bit. • Example: 3 = 0011, – 3 = 1100 • n-bit representation: Negation is equivalent to subtraction from 2n – 1 0000 0100 1000 1100 10000 10100 Infinite universe of integers -∞ -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 ∞ 0000 0000 1111 1111 16/0 0 15 15 Modulo-16 (4-bit) universe -0 1100 12 4 0100 1100 12 -3 4 0100 -7 7 7 8 8 0111 1000 1000 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  11. 2’s-Complement • Why not 1’s-complement? Don’t like two zeros. • Add 1 to 1’s-complement representation. • Some properties: • Only one representation for 0 • Exactly as many positive numbers as negative numbers • Slight asymmetry – there is one negative number with no positive counterpart ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  12. General Method for Binary Integers with Sign • Select number (n) of bits in representation. • Partition 2n integers into two sets: • 00…0 through 01…1 are n/2 positive integers. • 10…0 through 11…1 are n/2 negative integers. • Negation rule transforms negative to positive, and vice-versa: • Signed integers: invert MSB • 1’s complement: Subtract from 2n – 1 = 1…1 (same as “invert all bits”) • 2’s complement: Subtract from 2n = 10…0 (same as 1’s complement + 1) ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  13. Three Systems 10000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 0 0010 0 0 – 7 – 0 2 5 0101 – 6 6 – 2 7 7 7 0110 – 5 1010 – 0 – 7 – 8 0111 1010 1010 1000 1000 1000 1010 = – 2 Signed intergers 1010 = – 5 1’s complement integers 1010 = – 6 2’s complement integers ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  14. Three Representations Sign-magnitude 000 = +0 001 = +1 010 = +2 011 = +3 100 = - 0 101 = - 1 110 = - 2 111 = - 3 1’s complement 000 = +0 001 = +1 010 = +2 011 = +3 100 = - 3 101 = - 2 110 = - 1 111 = - 0 2’s complement 000 = +0 001 = +1 010 = +2 011 = +3 100 = - 4 101 = - 3 110 = - 2 111 = - 1 (Preferred) ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  15. 2’s Complement Numbers 0 000 -1 +1 -1 111 001 +1 Positive numbers 010 +2 Negative numbers -2 110 011 +3 -3 101 100 Overflow Negation - 4 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  16. 2’s Complement n-bit Numbers • Range: –2n –1 through 2n –1 – 1 • Unique zero: 00000000 . . . . . 0 • Negation rule: see slide 9. • Expansion of bit length: stretch the left-most bit all the way, e.g., 11111101 is still – 3. • Overflow rule: If two numbers with the same sign bit (both positive or both negative) are added, the overflow occurs if and only if the result has the opposite sign. • Subtraction rule: for A – B, add – B to A. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  17. 2’s-Compliment to Decimal Conversion n-2 an-1an-2 . . . a1a0 = -2n-1an-1 + Σ 2i ai i=0 8-bit conversion box -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Example -128+64+32+16+8+4+1 = -128 + 125 = -3 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  18. For More on 2’s-Complement • Chapter 2 in D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming: Seminumerical Algorithms, Volume II, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1981. • A. al’Khwarizmi, Hisab al-jabr w’al-muqabala, 830. • Read: A two part interview with D. E. Knuth, Communications of the ACM (CACM), vol. 51, no. 7, pp. 35-39 (july), and no. 8, pp. 31-35 (August), 2008. Donald E. Knuth (1938 - ) Abu Abd-Allah ibn Musa al’Khwarizmi (~780 – 850) ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  19. Addition • Adding bits: • 0 + 0 = 0 • 0 + 1 = 1 • 1 + 0 = 1 • 1 + 1 = (1)0 • Adding integers: carry 1 1 0 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 1 1 1 two = 7ten + 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 1 1 0 two = 6ten = 0 0 0 . . . . . . 1 (1)1 (1)0 (0)1 two = 13ten ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  20. Subtraction • Direct subtraction • Two’s complement subtraction 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 1 1 1 two = 7ten - 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 1 1 0 two = 6ten = 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 0 0 1two = 1ten 1 1 1 . . . . . . 1 1 0 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 1 1 1 two = 7ten + 1 1 1 . . . . . . 1 0 1 0 two = - 6ten = 0 0 0 . . . . . . 0 (1) 0 (1) 0 (0)1 two = 1ten ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  21. Overflow: An Error • Examples: Addition of 3-bit integers (range - 4 to +3) • -2-3 = -5110 = -2 + 101 = -3 = 1011 = 3 (error) • 3+2 = 5011 = 3 010 = 2 = 101 = -3 (error) • Overflow rule: If two numbers with the same sign bit (both positive or both negative) are added, the overflow occurs if and only if the result has the opposite sign. 000 111 0 001 1 -1 – + 2 010 110 -2 3 -3 011 101 - 4 100 Overflow crossing ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  22. Design Hardware Bit by Bit • Adding two bits: a b half_sum carry_out h_s(a, b) c_o(a, b) 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 • Half-adder circuit half_sum a XOR b carry_out AND ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  23. One-bit Full-Adder • Adding three bits a b ci half sum (a, b) full sum h_s c_o h_s c_o (a, b) (a, b) (h_s(a, b), ci) (h_s(a, b), ci) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 ci+1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  24. One-bit Full-Adder Circuit ci FAi h_s (ai, bi) h_s (h_s(ai, bi), ci) XOR sumi ai XOR c_o (ai, bi) c_o (h_s(ai, bi), ci) AND bi AND OR Ci+1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  25. 32-bit Ripple-Carry Adder c0=0 a0 b0 sum0 FA0 sum1 a1 b1 FA1 sum2 a2 b2 FA2 sum31 FA31 a31 b31 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  26. How Fast is Ripple-Carry Adder? • Longest delay path (critical path) runs from cin to sum31. • Suppose delay of full-adder is 100ps. • Critical path delay = 3,200ps • Clock rate cannot be higher than 1/(3,200×10 –12) Hz = 312MHz. • Must use more efficient ways to handle carry. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  27. Speeding Up the Adder a0-a15 16-bit ripple carry adder sum0-sum15 b0-b15 cin a16-a31 16-bit ripple carry adder 0 b16-b31 0 sum16-sum31 Multiplexer a16-a31 16-bit ripple carry adder 1 b16-b31 This is a carry-select adder 1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  28. Fast Adders • In general, any output of a 32-bit adder can be evaluated as a logic expression in terms of all 65 inputs. • Number of levels of logic can be reduced to log2N for N-bit adder. Ripple-carry has N levels. • More gates are needed, about log2N times that of ripple-carry design. • Fastest design is known as carry lookahead adder. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  29. N-bit Adder Design Options Reference: J. L. Hennessy and D. A. Patterson, Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach, Second Edition, San Francisco, California, 1990, page A-46. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  30. Binary Multiplication (Unsigned) 1 0 0 0 two = 8ten multiplicand 1 0 0 1 two = 9ten multiplier ____________ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 partial products 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ____________ 1 0 0 1 0 0 0two = 72ten Basic algorithm: For n = 1, 32, only If nth bit of multiplier is 1, then add multiplicand × 2 n –1 to product ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  31. Multiplication Flowchart Start Initialize product register to 0 Partial product number, n = 1 LSB of multiplier ? Add multiplicand to product and place result in product register 1 0 Left shift multiplicand register 1 bit Right shift multiplier register 1 bit n = 32 n < 32 i = ? Done n = n + 1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  32. Serial Multiplication shift left shift right Multiplicand (expanded 64-bits) 32-bit multiplier 64 64 shift Test LSB 32 times add 64-bit ALU LSB = 1 LSB = 0 64 3 operations per bit: shift right shift left add Need 64-bit ALU 64-bit product register write ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  33. Serial Multiplication (Improved) 2 operations per bit: shift right add 32-bit ALU Multiplicand 32 32 add 1 Test LSB 32 times 32-bit ALU LSB 1 32 write 64-bit product register shift right 00000 . . . 00000 32-bit multiplier Initialized product register ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  34. Example: 0010two× 0011two 0010two× 0011two = 0110two, i.e., 2ten×3ten = 6ten ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  35. Multiplying with Signs • Convert numbers to magnitudes. • Multiply the two magnitudes through 32 iterations. • Negate the result if the signs of the multiplicand and multiplier differed. • Alternatively, the previous algorithm will work with some modifications.See B. Parhami, Computer Architecture, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 199-200. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  36. Example 1: 1010two× 0011two 1010two× 0011two = 101110two, i.e., -6ten×3ten = -18ten ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  37. Example 2: 1010two× 1011two 1010two× 1011two = 011110two, i.e., -6ten×(-5ten) = 30ten *Last iteration with a negative multiplier in 2’s complement. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  38. Adding Partial Products y3 y2 y1 y0 multiplicand x3 x2 x1 x0 multiplier ________________________ x0y3 x0y2 x0y1 x0y0 four carry← x1y3 x1y2 x1y1 x1y0 partial carry← x2y3 x2y2 x2y1 x2y0 products carry← x3y3 x3y2 x3y1 x3y0 to be __________________________________________________ summed p7 p6 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 p0 Requires three 4-bit additions. Slow. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  39. Array Multiplier: Carry Forward y3 y2 y1 y0 multiplicand x3 x2 x1 x0 multiplier ________________________ x0y3 x0y2 x0y1 x0y0 four x1y3 x1y2 x1y1 x1y0 partial x2y3 x2y2 x2y1 x2y0 products x3y3 x3y2 x3y1 x3y0 to be __________________________________________________ summed p7 p6 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 p0 Note: Carry is added to the next partial product (carry-save addition). Adding the carry from the final stage needs an extra (ripple-carry stage. These additions are faster but we need four stages. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  40. Basic Building Blocks • Two-input AND • Full-adder ith bit of kth partial product yi xk sum bit from (k-1)th sum carry bits from (k-1)th sum yi x0 Full adder Slide 24 p0i = x0yi 0th partial product carry bits to (k+1)th sum sum bit to (k+1)th sum ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  41. y3 y2 y1 y0 Array Multiplier x0 ppk yj xi 0 x1 ci 0 0 0 0 0 FA x2 co ppk+1 0 x3 Critical path 0 0 FA FA FA FA p3 p2 p1 p0 p7 p6 p5 p4 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  42. Types of Array Multipliers • Baugh-Wooley Algorithm: Signed product by two’s complement addition or subtraction according to the MSB’s. • Booth multiplier algorithm • Tree multipliers • Reference: N. H. E. Weste and D. Harris, CMOS VLSI Design, A Circuits and Systems Perspective, Third Edition, Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2005. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  43. Binary Division (Unsigned) 1 3 Quotient 1 1 / 1 4 7 Divisor / Dividend 1 1 3 7 Partial remainder 3 3 4 Remainder 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 / 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  44. 4-bit Binary Division (Unsigned) 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 negative →quotient bit 0 0 1 0 0→restore remainder 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 negative →quotient bit 0 0 1 0 0→restore remainder 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 negative →quotient bit 0 0 1 0 0→restore remainder 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 00 1 0positive →quotient bit 1 • Dividend: 6 = 0110 • Divisor: 4 = 0100 • 4 = 1100 • 6 • ─ = 1, remainder 2 • 4 Iteration 4 Iteration 3 Iteration 2 Iteration 1 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  45. 32-bit Binary Division Flowchart Start $R=0, $M=Divisor, $Q=Dividend, count=n $R (33 b) | $Q (32 b) Shift 1-bit left $R, $Q $R and $M have one extra sign bit beyond 32 bits. $R ← $R - $M No Yes $R < 0? $Q0=0 $R←$R+$M $Q0=1 Restore $R (remainder) count = count - 1 Done $Q=Quotient $R= Remainder No count = 0? Yes ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  46. 4-bit Example: 6/4 = 1, Remainder 2 count 4 3 2 1 0 Remainder | Quotient ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  47. Division 33-bit $M (Divisor) Step 2: Subtract $R← $R - $M 33 33 33-bit ALU Initialize $R←0 Step 1: 1- bit left shift $R and $Q 32 times 33 33-bit $R (Remainder) 32-bit $Q (Dividend) Step 3: If sign-bit ($R)=0, set Q0=1 If sign-bit ($R)=1, set Q0=0 and restore $R V. C. Hamacher, Z. G. Vranesic and S. G. Zaky, Computer Organization, Fourth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  48. Example: 8/3 = 2, Remainder = 2 Initialize $R = 0 0 0 0 0 $Q = 1 0 0 0 $M = 0 0 0 1 1 Step 1, L-shift $R,Q = 0 0 0 0 1 $Q = 0 0 0 0 Step 2, Add - $M = 1 1 1 0 1 $R = 1 1 1 1 0 Step 3, Set Q0 $Q = 0 0 0 0 Restore + $M = 0 0 0 1 1 $R = 0 0 0 0 1 Step 1, L-shift $R,Q = 0 0 0 1 0 $Q = 0 0 0 0 $M = 0 0 0 1 1 Step 2, Add - $M = 1 1 1 0 1 $R = 1 1 1 1 1 Step 3, Set Q0 $Q = 0 0 00 Restore + $M = 0 0 0 1 1 $R = 0 0 0 1 0 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  49. Example: 8/3 = 2 (Remainder = 2) (Continued) $R = 0 0 0 1 0 $Q = 0 0 0 0 $M = 0 0 0 1 1 Step 1, L-shift $R ,Q = 0 0 1 0 0 $Q = 0 0 0 0$M = 0 0 0 1 1 Step 2, Add - $M = 1 1 1 0 1 $R = 0 0 0 0 1 Step 3, Set Q0 $Q = 0 0 0 1 Step 1, L-shift $R,Q = 0 0 0 1 0 $Q = 00 1 0 $M = 0 0 0 1 1 Step 2, Add - $M = 1 1 1 0 1 $R = 1 1 1 1 1 Step 3, Set Q0 $Q = 00 1 0Final quotient Restore + $M = 0 0 0 1 1 $R = 0 0 0 1 0 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Remainder Note “Restore $R” in Steps 1, 2 and 4. This method is known as the RESTORING DIVISION. An improved method, NON-RESTORING DIVISION, is possible (see Hamacher, et al.) ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

  50. Signed Division • Remember the signs and divide magnitudes. • Negate the quotient if the signs of divisor and dividend disagree. • There is no other direct division method for signed division. ELEC2200-002 Lecture 2

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