Body Systems Project

1. Body Systems Project Pious Patel

2. Digestive System

3. Function • To digest food and convert it into usable forms for the rest of the body • Glucose, proteins, nucleic acids, different lipids, etc.

4. Organs and Their Functions • Mouth (alimentary canal) • Begins digestion • Physical- teeth, saliva • Chemical- saliva initiates carbohydrate digestion • Pharynx (alimentary canal) • Swallowing mechanism • Esophagus (alimentary canal) • Passageway between pharynx and stomach

5. Organs and Their Functions • Stomach (alimentary canal) • Digestion • Physical- violent shaking • Chemical- gastric juice (HCl, pepsin, and mucus) • Begins protein digestion (and butterfat) • Duodenum (alimentary canal) • Receives chyme from stomach and mixes with pancreatic juices and bile from liver • Jejunum (alimentary canal) • Majority of digestion here, longest segment • Ileum (alimentary canal) • Higher bacterial population

6. Organs and Their Functions • Cecum (alimentary canal) • Connects ileum with ascending colon • Appendix (alimentary canal) • Vestigial cecum, main site of enteric digestion in other animals • Colon • Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons • Absorbs 90% of water entering in chyme • Houses many bacteria that break down fiber • Synthesize Vitamin K and B12, thiamine, and riboflavin for us

7. Organs and Their Functions • Rectum (alimentary canal) • Triggers defecation reflex • Makes internal anal sphincter relax • Anus (alimentary canal) • External opening of alimentary canal • Constricted by both anal sphincters • Salivary glands (accessory) • Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands • Secrete saliva for digestion in mouth

8. Organs and Their Functions • Liver (accessory) • Breaks down fats, converts amino acids, produced bile, detoxifies alcohol, and many other catabolic and anabolic processes • Pancreas (accessory) • Secretes pancreatic juice into duodenum • Pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and many other enzymes

9. Organs and Their Functions • Gallbladder (accessory) • Stores bile and injects into duodenum • Not necessary, liver injects bile into duodenum as well • Internal anal sphincter (alimentary canal) • Smooth muscle, involuntary control • External anal sphincter (alimentary canal) • Skeletal muscle, voluntary control

10. Why is digestion essential? • Breaking down large food molecules is needed so that the body can actually get the energy and nutrients needed to function • Enzymes are needed to actually go through the process of breaking down and simplifying the large food molecules. They are the final digestion tools to simplify food into usable units

11. Physical vs. Chemical Digestion • Physical- not chemically changing food • Only breaking it down into smaller pieces • Chemical- changing chemical composition of food • Chemical reactions actually take place to change the molecules and other chemical species involved

12. Where certain digestion takes place • Carbohydrate- begins in mouth • Continues throughout alimentary canal • Amylase (salivary and pancreatic), sucrase, lactase • Protein- begins in stomach with denaturing • Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin • Fat- begins in mouth • Vast majority in small intestine • Lipase (lingual and pancreatic) and bile

13. Colorectal Cancer • Fourth most common cancer • 143,460 estimated new cases for 2012 • 56,000 annual deaths in U.S. • Symptoms- change in frequency or consistency of B.M.’s, blood in feces, abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, vomiting • Treated by surgical excision and common anticancer treatments

14. Liver Cancer • Cancer of the liver • 28,720 estimated new cases for 2012 • 20,550 estimated deaths for 2012 • Symptoms- very subtle, some include unexplained weight loss or fevers and sudden complication in a cirrhosis patient • Common anticancer treatments and surgery can be used to treat it

15. Sources • Medicinenet.com • National Cancer Institute • Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

16. Cardiovascular System

17. Functions of • The overall system- transporting nutrients and other raw materials to the body cells, as well as serving as a highway for the immune system and maintaining homeostasis • Arteries- made of thick, strong smooth muscle • To transport oxygenated blood (except for pulmonary arteries) to the body cells • Strong muscle helps maintain blood pressure and moves oxygenated blood quickly and effectively to the body

18. Functions of • Capillaries- very small and thin vessel • “The end of the branch” • Gives nutrients and materials to cells as of one of the very many small streams that the giant rivers (arteries) fork out into • Veins- Loose, large volume, many valves • Transports deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary veins) back to heart • Sort of the blood reservoir • Valves help control the flow of blood against gravity by preventing backflow

19. How the blood goes through the heart • Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium by the inferior and superior vena cavas (veins) • As soon as the tricuspid valve opens, the right atrium pumps the blood into the right ventricle • The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary trunk, which branches into the right and left pulmonary arteries • The pulmonary arteries carry the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated

20. How the blood goes through the heart • The pulmonary veins bring the oxygenated blood back to the heart into the left atrium • The left atrium pumps the blood into the left ventricle once the mitral valve has been opened • The left ventricle then pumps the blood for the last time, sending it to the aorta and onwards to the rest of the body

21. Composition of blood • Plasma- 55% of blood volume • Watery portion containing dissolved proteins • Thrombocytes- platelets, cell fragments that stick to broken surfaces to make a plug that stops bleeding • Leukocytes- white blood cells, fight against foreign invaders • Erythrocytes- red blood cells, carry oxygen to the body cells

22. Erythrocyte structure • Anucleated- nucleus removed from cell so as to increase surface area to maximize oxygen capacity • Oxygen complexes to hemoglobin in a weak, temporary bond that is broken when erythrocyte reaches a body cell that needs it

23. Open vs. Closed Circulatory Systems • Closed- ours, along with most vertebrates • Blood closed at all times inside vessels • Open- most invertebrates, such as crayfish • Blood still pumped by heart, but fills body cavities and surrounds tissues • Not contained by vessels, blood is freer to move around the body

24. Four Circulatory System Variations

25. Fish • Overall very similar to mammalian • Oxygenation of blood is done by gills, not lungs • Structure of organs is obviously different from ours, but same basic concepts • Blood is moved through contraction hypobronchial muscles when being oxygenated • Very similar to ancestral circulatory system • Sinus venosus- initial collecting chamber in heart

26. Amphibian • Very similar overall system to ours • Three-chambered heart • Two atria, one ventricle • The one ventricle means oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixing occurs • Unlike fish, blood is always under full pressure

27. Reptiles • Very, very similar to amphibians • Three-chambered heart • But, have a septum that closes in the ventricle to reduce mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

28. Mammals • Four-chambered heart, double circuit pump • Most complex and sophisticated • No primitive sinus venosus • Basically all the same as humans’

29. Leukemia • Cancer of white blood cells • Symptoms- fever, persistent infections, weakness, fatigue, weight loss, easy bleeding, tiny red spots on skin • 44,600 estimated to have it in 2011 • Treated by basic cancer therapies (chemotherapy, radiation, etc.)

30. Atherosclerosis • Cholesterol and saturated fats form plaques on artery walls that restrict blood flow • Symptoms- chest pains, weakness, high blood pressure • Treated by change in diet and exercise and medication • About 4.6 million people in U.S. are affected by it

31. Sources • http://www.earthlife.net/fish/blood.html • http://www.shsu.edu/~bio_mlt/Chapter12.html • Talktalk.co.uk • Seer.cancer.gov • Mayoclinic.com • Bettermedicine.com • Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

32. Respiratory System

33. Functions • To exchange gases between body and atmosphere • Maintaining homeostasis • Providing oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide to maintain pH of blood

34. Alveoli • Very high surface area to volume ratio to increase gas exchange • Capillaries cover 70% of surface area • Great Alveolar Cells secrete surfactant to increase gas exchange

35. How O2 and CO2 are transported • Diffused into blood through lungs • Most of O2 transported by hemoglobin • CO2 transported as bicarbonate, by hemoglobin, and in plasma • Blood carries O2 to cells and CO2 away from cells

36. How air is drawn in • Inhalation • Contraction of diaphragm increases lung volume • This decreases pressure in lungs • Higher atmospheric pressure causes air to enter lungs • Exhalation • Inverse of above process, diaphragm rests, increases lung pressure, air leaves lungs

37. Emphysema • Cigarette smoking causes bronchioles to lose elasticity, cause alveoli to burst • Shortness of breath, fatigue • 18/1000 people have it • 15 times more likely in people who smoke at least a pack a day • Antibiotics, bronchiodilators, other drugs

38. Lung Cancer • Cancer that invades the lungs • Symptoms- unusual coughs, chest pain, coughing blood, wheezing, weight loss • Prevalence- 226,160 people will get it in 2012 • Treatments- radiation, chemotherapy, drugs, etc.

39. Sources • Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide • http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview • http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/lung

40. Immune System • Function- To protect the body from foreign invaders

41. Organs of Immune System • Bone Marrow- create leukocytes • Thymus- produce mature T-lymphocytes • Spleen- hub of immune system • As blood passes, hordes of leukocytes attack and destroy all foreigners • Lymph node- filters lymph • Contains lymphocytes and macrophages

42. How body recognizes pathogens • We have an astronomical number of antibodies that will bind to any of a number of antigens (foreign things that the system is trained to destroy) • Antibodies can bind to these foreign molecular structures, marking them for destruction by leukocytes, or even neutralizing them themselves through agglutination or other processes

43. Innate Immunity • Genetically based, from birth • Genes coding for antibodies inherited, not developed • Example- immune response against different blood type

44. Acquired Immunity • Immune system changed, honed, and developed over lifetime • Cell-mediated- Macrophages’ displayed antigens give T-lymphocytes new targets • Humoral- Consists of antibodies and the B-lymphocytes that create more, newer versions of them

45. Active vs. Passive Immunity • Active- giving antigens to body so it produces the antibodies necessary • Results are usually lifelong • Passive- giving antibodies directly to combat infections • Results are fast but short-lived

46. B vs. T Lymphocytes • B- produce antibodies, which form the basis of the entire immune system • Activated especially by encountering new antigens, but work nonstop nonetheless • T- Two types • One creates factors that command the rest of the immune system • The other directly attacks tumor cells, virally infected cells, etc. • Activated by infection and secondary lymphoid organs, but also work nonstop

47. Antibiotics • Antibiotics are defined as substances that destroy or inhibit bacteria • So obviously, by definition, they wouldn’t be effective against viruses • We have not discovered substances that destroy viruses, we can only either inhibit them or help our immune system destroy them

48. HIV • Human Immunodeficiency Virus attacks T-lymphocytes and monocytes, weakening the immune system • Symptoms- increased illness • Prevalence- 0.6% of US population has it • Treatment- drugs

49. Mononucleosis • Caused by Epstein-Barr Virus • Immunodeficiency disease • Also attacks T-lymphocytes and monocytes • Symptoms- increased illness • Prevalence- 95% of adults in U.S. had it at some point • Treatment- very little, corticosteroids, NSAIDs

50. Sources • http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html • http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/bugl/immune.htm • http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/8/552.full • http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AIDS.ZS • http://www.mdguidelines.com/mononucleosis • Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide