AP Psychology Exam Review #4

1. AP Psychology Exam Review #4 Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion Unit 9: Developmental Psychology

2. Unit 8 Top Ten: Motivation and Emotion (6-8%) • Biological bases for motivation and Instinct Theory • Drive-Reduction Theory • Incentive Theory • Optimal Arousal Theory • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Hunger Motivation • Sexual Motivation • James-Lange Theory of Emotion • Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion • 2 Factor Theory of Emotion

3. 1. Biological bases for motivation and Instinct Theory • Behaviors are motivated by instincts • a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned • Genes predispose species-typical behavior • Rooting reflex • Fight/flight • Reproduction

4. 2. Drive-Reduction Theory • Idea that physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. • Desire to maintain homeostasis • Constant, balanced internal state

5. 3. Incentive Theory • Pushed by needs, pulled by incentives • Environmental stimuli that motivate behavior

6. 4. Optimal Arousal Theory • Too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to find an optimum state of arousal • Ex: curiosity-driven behaviors

7. 5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

8. 6. Hunger Motivation • Glucose • Blood sugar that provides the major source of energy to body tissues • When low, we feel hunger. • Appetite hormones • Insulin – regulates glucose • Ghrelin – hunger producing • PPY – hunger decreasing • Leptin – metabolism increasing • Eating Disorders • Hypothalamus largely controls and monitors hunger. • Lateral hypothalamus – brings hunger by producing the hormone orexin when glucose levels drop • Lower mid-hypothalamus (ventromedial) – depresses hunger • Psychology of Hunger - We remember our last meal and anticipate our next. • Studies done with amnesiac patients

9. 7. Sexual Motivation • Sex Response Cycle • The four stages of sexual responding (similar in males and females) • Refractory period – a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. • Sex Hormones – Estrogen and Testosterone

10. Emotion • A response of the whole organism, involving • physiological arousal • expressive behaviors • conscious experience

11. 8. James-Lange Theory • Physical arousal occurs before the emotion • The heart races BEFORE the feeling of fear is felt.

12. 9. Cannon-Bard Theory • Simultaneous experience of physiological arousal and emotion. • Your heart races AS you experience fear.

13. 10. Two Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer) • Physiological arousal occurs and the brain appraises the arousal to label the emotion felt. • Emotions are context-dependent • Racing heart can mean fear or happiness depending on the context.

14. Spill-over effect – arousal influences the way we perceive other events and thus feel/interpret emotion. • Ex: Schachter and Singer’s adrenaline experiment • Robert Zajonc– we feel emotions apart, or before, our conscious awareness of them.

15. Unit 9 Top Ten: Developmental Psyc. (7-9%) • Prenatal and Early Childhood • Developmental Theories • Physical Development • Cognitive Development • Social Development • Moral Development • Adolescence • Gender Roles • Adulthood or Old Age • Research Methods – Longitudinal and cross-sectional)

16. 1. Prenatal and Early Development • Zygote • the fertilized egg • enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division • develops into an embryo • Embryo • the developing human organism from 2 weeks through 2nd month • Fetus • the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth • Teratogens • agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

17. 2. Childhood Development • Habituation • decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation • Maturation • biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior • Schema • a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information • Assimilation • interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas • Accommodation • adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information • Cognition • All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

18. 3. Developmental Theories • Jean Piaget’s Stage of Cognitive Development • Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development • Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

19. Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) • Object permanence • Stranger anxiety About 2 to 6 years Preoperational Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning • Pretend play • Egocentrism • Language development About 7 to 11 years Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations • Conservation • Mathematical transformations About 12 through adulthood Formal operational Abstract reasoning • Abstract logic • Potential for moral reasoning 4. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget

20. Approximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior. 5. Social Development – Erik Erikson

21. Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure. 5. Social Development

22. Social Development • Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments • Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother • Critical Period • an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development • Imprinting • the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

23. 6. Moral Development – Lawrence Kohlberg Pre-Conventional Conventional Post-Conventional

24. 7. Adolescence • Adolescence • the transition period from childhood to adulthood • extending from puberty to independence • Puberty • the period of sexual maturation • when a person becomes capable of reproduction • Identity • one’s sense of self • the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles • Intimacy • the ability to form close, loving relationships • a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood • Primary Sex Characteristics • body structures that make sexual reproduction possible • ovaries--female • testes--male • external genitalia • Secondary Sex Characteristics • nonreproductive sexual characteristics • female--breast and hips • male--voice quality and body hair • Menarche(meh-NAR-key) • first menstrual period

25. 8. Gender Roles • Nurture of Gender • Gender Roles – our expectations about the way men and women should behave in certain cultures • Gender Identity – our sense of being male or female • Gender typing – boys and girls exhibiting traditional male and female traits and interests

26. 9. Adulthood and Old Age • Menopause • the time of natural cessation of menstruation • also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines • Alzheimer’s Disease • characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning • Social Clock • the culturally preferred timing of social events • Marriage, parenthood, retirement • Crystallized Intelligence • one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills • tends to increase with age • Fluid Intelligence • ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly • tends to decrease during late adulthood

27. Longitudinal method suggests more stability Cross-sectional method suggests decline 10. Research Methods – Longitudinal and cross-sectional) • Cross-Sectional Study • a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another • Longitudinal Study • a study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period Reasoning ability score 60 55 50 45 40 35 25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 Age in years Cross-sectional method Longitudinal method