智力测量

1. 智力测量 北京师范大学心理学院 赵守盈

2. 主要内容 • History of intelligence test • What is intelligence? • Theories of Intelligence • Intelligence Tests • Te Performance and Culture-Fair Tests st Administration • Positive Aspects of Individual Testing • What Determines Intelligence?(Nature vs. Nurture) • The Flynn Effect Gender Differences in Intelligence • Extremes of Intelligence • Levels of Mental Retardation

3. History of intelligence test • Jean Esquirol (1838) • Distinguished between mental incapacity and mental illness • Idiot – those mentally retarded from birth • Mentally-deranged persons – lost abilities previously possessed • Worked to develop measures that distinguished between the two

4. History of intelligence test cont. • Psychometrics • Galton • regression to mean, correlation • knowledge gained through senses -- those with highest IQs have best sensory discrimination? • *First to propose individuals posses both general intellectual ability and specific abilities

5. History of intelligence test cont. • Pearson • Correlation • J.M. Cattell • Studied with Wundt and Galton • US researcher • First to use “mental test” • Developed one of first tests for individual differences

6. History of intelligence test cont. • Ebbinghaus • Memory • Developed test for teachers • Start of clinical diagnostics

7. History of intelligence test cont. • Binet and Simon • Among first to develop test used on a wide-scale basis for diagnostic purposes • Commissioned by French government to test kids for mental retardation • Among first to include cognition in addition to sensory processes

8. Binet-Simon Scale (1905) • Some related subtests still on SB-IV • Aged-based • Measured degree of MR • Saw intelligence as a collection of abilities (like Thurstone and Cattell)

9. Stanford-Binet • Terman – added subtests, modified, and re-normed Binet’s test; published as the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon scale • First wide-scale intelligence test used in US • Used mental quotient (MA/CA) – renamed it “intelligence quotient”

10. Stanford-Binet cont. • Stanford-Binet L/M (deviation IQ; items/subtests still age-based) • 1986 Stanford-Binet IV (point-scale) • Quasi-based upon Cattell and Horn theory

11. Wechsler • “Borrowed” 11 subtests from various intelligence tests and put them into one test – Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale • Interested in general mental ability (g), rather than “primary mental abilities”, following work of Spearman • used multiple subtests to try and get at general ability level

12. History Concluded • Spearman • Developed factor analysis methods allowing for comparison of the two rival theories (global intellect vs. specific, independent abilities)

13. Present • Disagreement about definition of “intelligence” continues • Difficult to measure intelligence • Can’t directly measure it • Must rely on behavioral measures and infer

14. Present cont. • Most agree intelligence refers to abstract reasoning, problem solving ability, capacity to acquire knowledge, learning/memory, and adaptation to one’s environment • Math knowledge, mental speed, linguistic competence, and general knowledge also ranked as important

15. What is intelligence? • Lay people • reasons logically • reads widely • displays common sense • has a high comprehension

16. What is intelligence cont.? • intelligence:A general term referring to the ability to learn and develop adaptive behaviors. • intelligence tests:Tests designed to measure a person’s general mental abilities.

17. What is intelligence cont. ? • Most important aspects of intelligence • Lay people Psychologists • practical problem-solving ability verbal ability • verbal ability problem-solving ability • social competence practical intelligence

18. What is intelligence cont.? DEFINITIONS: • . Biological definitions • intelligence is an ability to adapt to the environment and how you behave • 2. Psychological definitions • psychometric approach - something we can measure and you can have a little or a lot of • 3. Operational definition • intelligence is what intelligence tests measure (Boring, 1923)

19. Psychological definitions • Binet (1905) to judge well, to comprehend well, to reason well • Terman (1921) to carry out abstract thinking • Burt (1955) innate, general cognitive ability • Wechsler (1944, 1958)the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment

20. Psychological definitions cont. • Heim (1970) Intelligent activity consists of grasping the essentials in a situation and responding appropriately to them • Vernon (1969) The effective, all-round cognitive abilities to comprehend, to grasp relations and reason.

21. Operational Definition • Since there’s not a set theoretical definition, must derive operational definition of intelligence: A general term referring to the ability to learn and develop adaptive behaviors. • intelligence tests: Tests designed to measure a person’s general mental abilities. for research and clinical purposes • Most common one used is a composite IQ score of some type • Common-sense approach -- Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure

22. 补充：智力的有关定义 • 什么是操作定义？ • 在心理学上，对一个心理现象根据测定它们的程序下的定义叫做操作定义。 • 操作定义的两个缺陷 • 逻辑上陷入循环论证。 • 阻碍了对智力的进一步理解，现在的每一个新智力测验在进行检验时，都把自己与旧的测验求相关，相关高证明了可靠性高。这样实际上限制了我们对智力的进一步理解，使得新测验并不优于现在的测验。 • 智力的定义 • 对智力的看法是编制智力测验的理论前提。在19世纪后半叶，智力一词最早是由哲学家塞(H. Spencer)和生物学家高尔顿(Galton) 将拉丁词intelligence 引入巩的，其意义是代表一种天生的特点及倾向性。此后，智力一词随着心理测验的发展而逐渐普及。

23. 智力的有关定义(cont.) • 对智力的看法，比较有代表性的有以下几类观点： • 智力是学习的能力 • Humphreys (1971) 智力是本质上能体现智能的，任何时候都可以运用的，个体所有的习得技能、知识、学习方法和概括倾向。 • Terman (1916) 智力是形成概念，并且抓住其重要性 的能力。 • 智力是适应环境的能力 • Piaget(1972) 智力是总括性的术语，指用来适应物理和社会环境的认知结构的组织和平衡的高级形式。 • Sternberg (1985, 1986) 智力是指自动信息加工和产生适合的情况的行为的心理能量，它包括元成分，操作成分和知识获得成分。 • Pintner (1921) 智力是个体在重用中适应较新情境的能力。 • 智力是抽象思维的能力 • Binet & Simon (1905) 智力是正确地进行理解、判断和推理的能力。 • Wechsler (1939) 智力是个体有目的地行动，理发地思考以及有效地应付环境的能力。

24. 智力的有关定义(cont.) • 智力是信息加工的能力 • Sternberg (1985, 1986) 智力是指自动信息加工和产生适合的情况的行为的心理能量，它包括元成分，操作成分和知识获得成分。 • Eysenck (1986) 智力是将信息无错地传递到皮层的能力。 • 智力是综合理解 • 持这种观点的人认为，以上对智力的几种看法并不矛盾，只是反映了智力的多层次和多面性，因此，出现了关于智力综合定义。美国心理学家韦克斯勒采用综合的观点，认为智力是一个人的心理能力的总和，些项能量能够使个人有目的地行动，使个人的思想有条理，并且能够对自身的环境作有效的适应。斯腾伯格也认为：“智力是从经验中学习和获益的能力，抽象思维和推理的能力，适应不断变化、模糊多样的世界的能力，以及激励自己有效地完成应该完成 的任务的能力。”

25. 智力的有关定义(cont.) • 外行的智力概念： • Sternberg等(1981) 进行了一系列调查美国成人智力概念的研究。发现：外行和专家对各种行为重要性的评价虽然并不完全一致，但极为相似。按照重要性顺序排列，专家认为证词能力、问题解决能力和实际智能最重要，而外行则认为实际问题解决能力、语词能力和社会能；和最重要。虽然顺序有所不同，专家与外行都强调了语词能力和问题解决能力，而这正是大多数智力测验所测量的。在现代的智力测量中，这也是非常重要的。 • 外行与专家不一致的地方还有，专家认为实际智能(把握情况，决定如何达到目标，对世界的理解和兴趣)是智力的基本成分，外行则把社会能力(接受他人，承认错误，准时，对世界的兴趣)作为第三个基本成分。现代的智力测验对两者都没有测量，一方面是因为测量这方面的项目不易设计，另一方面是因为测验编制者们盲目地接受传统的智力定义和测量形式。直到今天，智力测验的形式与 Binet 时代，与第一次世界大战时的a、B测验仍很相似。也有一些心理学家在试图改变这一现状，如Sternberg提出 的多维能力测验，Cornelius & Caspi (1987) 的日常问题解决测验(Everyday Problem Solving Inventory)，在此测验中，被试要回答他们对各种日常问题(如没有带钱请人吃饭等) 的典型反应。

26. Theories of Intelligence • Golton and RT-MT • Charles Spearman’s genreal intelligence “g” • L. L. Thurstone’s Seven Mental Abilities • Raymond B. Cattell's Two-Factor Theory • Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory • Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory • J. P. Guilford intelligence structure model

27. Golton and RT-MT • FRANCIS GALTON (1883) • intelligence is based on sensory keenness • F. Galton 与他的学生J. M. Cattell 认为智力依赖于敏锐的感觉能力。其理论前提是，所有引起我们注意的信息都要经过感觉，感觉越敏锐，我们的判断和智力作用的范围就越大。这一理论现在已经被抛弃，但在某些对智力的时间测量上仍可以看到这一理论的痕迹。Jense (1980) 在瓜时-运动时(RT-MT) 仪器上对智力进行了研究。研究发现，RT、MT与传统智力测验分数的相关高达0.5。这就显示RT-MT测量可以用来作为标准智力测验的有用的补充。

28. Charles Spearman’s genreal intelligence “g” • One of first theories • Based upon factor analysis of group IQ tests – why are so many tests intercorrelated? • Two components contributing to performance on every subtest – • g (general intelligence factor) • specific ability

29. Spearman’s Two-factor Theory • “g” factor (general intelligence): Spearman stressed a general mental energy that can be channeled in various directions. Intelligent people can perform well in many areas. • s factors (specific intelligence): reflect specific knowledge and abilities that are only used when performing specific tasks that have been learned.

30. Spearman’s Two-factor Theory • Spearman’s Psychometric Approach and the “g” Factor • Charles Spearman developed the psychometric approach to intelligence • He attempted to measure individual differences in behaviors and abilities. • He measured how well a variety of people performed on a diverse selection of tasks and found that level of performance on one task was correlated positively with level of performance on all of the others.

31. 图 According to Spearman (1904), all intelligent abilities have an area of overlap, which he called g (for “general”). Each ability also depends partly on an s (for “specific”) factor

32. Spearman’s Psychometric Approach and the “g” Factor • It is thought that the specific abilities depend more on practice than any innate talents. • Researchers have found evidence for genetic influences on “g” but not on “s” abilities. • Spearman referred to his theory as “monarchic” because the dominant ability of “g” rules over all of the others, the lesser “s” abilities.

33. Spearman’s Two-factor Theory • 他认为G因子是整个大脑皮层共有的能力或能量，而S因子只是代表 子大脑中某些神经元的生理功能。他推测某些测验主要负荷G因子，而另一些测验---主要是纯感觉测验---主要代表特殊因子。如果两个测验都主要负荷G因子，测验应有很高的相关，相反，两个测验特殊因子之间的相关应很低。 • C. Spearman 认为个体在g因子上的差异最直接地反映在这三个认知原则的使用上(1)掌握经验 (2) 引出联系 (3) 引出相关。 • 这一理论所面临的最困难的问题是群因素(group factor)的存在。早在1906年Spearman 就已经注意到，相对不相似的测验的相关可能比通过它们各自的g因子预测的值高。这一发现说明，不同的测量之间除了g因子外，还可能存在其他共同的因素。例如，几个测验可能共有一个记忆因子，它处于g因子与各种测量猢的S因子之间。这样，群因素的存在就与双因子理论产生了冲突。

34. Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities • In contrast, L. L. Thurstone said primary mental abilities are “independent” of each other. A person could excel in one area and be very average in others. • Thurstone’s seven primary mental abilities: spatial visualizations verbal meaningword fluency number facility memory reasoningperceptual speed

35. Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities • Mental abilities are discrete and independent of each other • Intelligence is not a unitary trait (no g) • 7 primary abilities based upon special factor analysis technique • Initially, 7 discrete primary abilities • Then became 8 (“Reasoning” separated into inductive and deductive reasoning)

36. Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities • Verbal – knowledge of acquired information • Verbal Fluency – expressiveness, use of language • Reasoning – inductive/deductive • Visualization – visual-spatial perception, visual motor skills • Perceptual Speed – basic processing speed • Number – math skill/numerical reasoning • Rote Memory/STM • Later – acknowledged presence of a g factor

37. Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental Abilities • Thurstone 1941年曾根据上述七种基本能力编制了著名的基本心理能力测验。 • 后来Thurstone也承认g因子作为更高层次因子的存在，而Spearman也接受了群因子代表特殊能力的观点，但他们继续强调各自的因子 对智力更具决定性作用。

38. R.B. Cattell and Horn • Late 60s • Based upon factor analysis • SB-IV incorporated this model • Two types of intelligence – Crystallized vs. Fluid abilities

39. Raymond B. Cattell's Two-Factor Theory • fluid intelligence:General mental energy (like “g”). like a fluid, it “shapes” itself to the task (e.g., math, music, chemistry). • crystallized intelligence:Knowledge that is “learned” or accumulated over a lifetime. • Crystallizedintelligence is more stable across the lifespan whereasfluidintelligence begins a slow decline in middle adulthood.

40. R.B. Cattell and Horn cont. • Crystallized Intelligence • Acquired via education, culture, environment • How well can person apply learned rules to various situations to solve problems? • Improves after brain maturation (0-18+ years) • Slow to decline with age • Ex: Vocabulary, Information

41. R.B. Cattell and Horn cont. • Fluid Intelligence • Related to real-world experiences and more innate abilities • Nonverbal, less culturally-biased • Exhibited through common sense, reasoning, adaptive, and new learning abilities • Takes into account processing speed and WM

42. R.B. Cattell and Horn cont. • Need adequate fluid intelligence to acquire crystallized abilities • Others state many tasks would fit both categories (A, S) • Is criticism of theory (having two be separate and distinct)

43. Horn • Continued to argue there’s no solitary g • 80’s -- Intelligence is comprised of multiple distinct functions that may have different genetic underpinnings and developmental courses (fluid vs. crystallized) • 1998 -- 9 “composite” abilities

44. Horn cont. • *Fluid Reasoning • *Crystallized Ability • Long-term retrieval • *STM • *Processing Speed • Decision Speed • Auditory Processing • *Visual Processing • *Quantitative Knowledge

45. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Experiential Contextual Componential We all share these three types of intelligence but excel in one or two areas

46. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

47. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory cont. • Intelligence comprised of information processing components • Three dimensions: componential, experiential, contextual

48. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory cont. • componential:Ability to acquire new knowledge and solve problems effectively (intelligence as we think of it). • experiential: The ability to adapt creatively in new situations (ability to meet new challenges). • contextual: Ability to select “contexts” in which you can excel (e.g., being able to make the right career choice).

49. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory cont. • Componential: three components • Metacomponents – planning, monitoring, evaluating • Performance components – strategies used to execute a task • Knowledge acquisition components – processes used in learning new things

50. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory cont. • Experiential – relates intelligence to both internal and external worlds • Point where intelligence is most involved in a person’s ability to cope with tasks or situations • Deals with novelty and automaticity • Why get group differences on same performance-based task; task unlikely to be equivalent for both groups as degree of novelty and automatization different for two groups