5.3 Mass Flow Analysis

1. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis 5.2 Eco Design 5.3 Mass Flow Analysis

2. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts throughout the Life-cycle of Products and Processes 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis

3. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Contents • The Concept of Environmental LCA • Methodology of Environmental LCA; • Goal and Scope • Inventory Analysis • Impact Assessment • Interpretation • Extending the scope of Environmental LCA; • Economic LCA • Social LCA

4. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (1) • Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do! • Product systems are composed of interrelated processes Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268

5. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (2) • Some products have a dominating environmental load in production, some in use, some in disposal: Examples: books, furniture, art etc. Examples: cars, television, airco etc. Examples: Ni-Cd batteries, household chemicals, fireworks etc.

6. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (3) • Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products or processes over their life cycle. • LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages, product parts or processes to environmental burden. • LCA is often used to compare between products or design alternatives. • Applications of LCA: • Product improvement • Support for strategic choices • Benchmarking • External communication

7. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis The Concept of LCA (4) • LCA is a model of a complex reality! • …of an average lifecycle of a mass product • …of the effect of all impacts that occur • …of their interaction. • Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make a model, you must specify the goal and scope describing why you want to make the model.

8. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (1) • Goal and Scope definition • Inventory Analysis • Impact Assessment • Interpretation The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006

9. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (2), Goal and Scope • Questions: • What is the intended application of the LCA? • How much effort do you want to invest? • Who are interested parties? • What methodology will you use? • Why is a goal and scope definition important? • guidance in data collection phase • communication base for data providers • reference for data quality management. • afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during the various LCA phases.

10. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (3), Goal and Scope • Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects • Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000 litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle. • Functional unit is basis for comparison “Compare environmental impacts of packaging of 1000 litres milk in carton packages or glass bottles” ? =

11. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (4), Goal and Scope • Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects • System boundaries: definition of processes that are included in the investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production of capital goods (equipment used for production and transportation) are often excluded from the system. System boundaries are further defined during the inventory process. • Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity, transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)

12. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (4), Inventory • Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase • Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs • Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and resource use • Detailed defining of product system and economy-environment boundary. Only data collection for processes that are controlled by human beings (economic processes). Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled dumping of solid waste etc. • Visualizing connected processes in product system • Scaling of available technical data (e.g. fromdata libraries) to functional unit • Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table

13. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (5), Inventory Example of Product system and Inventory Table electricity incineration steel production distribution use dump plastic reuse recycling

14. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (6), Inventory • Difficulties: • Data availability and quality • Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies needed • Measurement procedures rarely standardized • Geographic variations • quality of raw materials/energy sources • production methods • relevant environmental impacts • Technology • Which type of electricity production? • Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process? • Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?

15. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (6), Inventory • Difficulties: • Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output processes; • Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined waste treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs: • Recycling and reuse • Allocation determined by number of reusetimes and fraction of materials that can be recycled at a certain quality Recycling Electricity production Chlorine Plastic bag use Plastic production Salt electrolysis Paint production Old plastic Caustic Soda

16. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis LCI result Depletion Raw materials Land use CO2 VOS P SO2 NOx CFC Cd PAH DDT Land use Climate change Acidification Eutrophication Ecotoxicity Humantoxicity Methodology of LCA (7), Impact assessment • Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) • Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like climate change, acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc.

17. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (8), Impact assessment: • Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization: • Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to climate change • Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a characterisation factor to get indicator results • Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get dimensionless score (useful for comparison) Impact category Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent) Char. Factor (Global Warming Potential)

18. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Intervention Effect Damage CO2 P SO2 NOx DDT Dust VOC Cd PAH CFC Greenhouse effect Eutrophication Damage to Eco-systems Acidification Pesticides Indicator Winter smog Summer smog Damage to human health Heavy metals Carconogenics Ozone layer depl. Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment • Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact 2002+ etc.)

19. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (9), Impact assessment • A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score) does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution  weighing of results is needed • Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important? • Procedure of LCIA according to ISO: • Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step. • Normalisation is an optional step. • Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not for comparison of products to the public.

20. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation • “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations” (ISO) • To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope: • Are the the general assumptions reasonable? • Is the functional unit well chosen? • Are ISO standards applied? • Has a peer review been conducted?

21. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation • Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important choices or assumptions • What if other allocations are applied. • What if other boundaries are applied. • What if other impact assessment method is used. • By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how the conclusionsconnect with the assumptions.

22. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (1) • LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can be extended to include economic and social impacts. • Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC); • Analysis of life cycle costs • Social LCA • Social impacts throughout life cycle of products and processes

23. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (2) • What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a product or process? • R&D • Production • Marketing • Sales • Etc. • Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment): • Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental services?

24. 5.1 Life Cycle Analysis Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (3) • Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and health: • Job quality • Quality physical health • Quality social health • Earthly possessions • Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social conditions do change more rapidly • impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate • emotions resulting from changes disappear with time • diseases get cured • people who are laid off may find new jobs)

25. 5.2 Eco-Design Life Cycle Thinking within the Design of Products and Processes 5.2 Eco-design

26. 5.2 Eco-design Contents • What is Eco-Design? • Implications for the Design Process. • Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste. • Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design.

27. 5.2 Eco-design What is Eco-Design? • Eco-design… • incorporates environmental aspects into the familiar design process • is aimed at improving eco-efficiency (section 2.3) of products and processes • evolves directly from life cycle thinking and is a logical application of LCA (section 5.1) results

28. 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (1) • The designer considers functionality requirements of the product including its environmental implications along the life cycle. • The ‘Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel’visualizes the guidelines of Eco-Design. • A ‘product profile’ is created using LCA. The Lifecycle Design Strategies Wheel

29. 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (2) • The relative complex LCA procedure and the creative slightly chaotic design process are not so easy to combine:

30. 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (3) Complexity of the Design Process

31. 5.2 Eco-design Design phase Design activity LCA activity LCA information generated Product planning Target is defined as product/market combination Assessment of strategy Strategic choices Analysis Refinement of target and definition of requirements LCA of reference product Design guidelines and eco-indicators Idea generation Creativity techniques are used to generate new solutions Use of design rules and eco-indicators Pre-selection of ideas Concept Best ideas are selected and elaborated Short screenings and what-if analysis Support in concept choices Detailed design Best concept is detailed; prototype and CAD drawings Specific questions and issues Support in detailed design choices Implications for the Design Process (4) Application of LCA results in Design for Environment

32. 5.2 Eco-design Implications for the Design Process (5) • Simulation of environmental impacts by LCA can provide important guidance during the design process: • …In the creative phase as pre-defined guidelines and pre-defined indicators • …In the concept phase as screenings …An LCA of a reference product should be ready before the creative phase in order to develop dedicated guidelines and indicators! • Possibilities for environmental improvement are large at the early/conceptual phase within the design process, when there is still freedom to change the design !

33. 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (1) • Eco-Design implies efficient resource use for production • Eco-Design implies lower use of toxic substances • Eco-Design implies efficientmaterial and energy use • …which decreases…: • natural resource extractions (materials and energy) • hazardous materials within discarded products • toxic emissions during incineration • solid waste quantities

34. 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (2) • Eco-Design improves Eco-efficiency: Functional performance provided by product over life cycle = Eco-efficiency Environmental Impacts of product over life cycle resource-efficiency reduction haz. substances eco-efficiency = + • applying Eco-efficiency results in Eco-products…

35. 5.2 Eco-design Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste (3) Improved material and energy content (quantity and quality) in products Reduced solid waste amount and hazardousness composition Eco-products • Consequences for solid waste: • Reduction of natural resource extractions (materials and energy) • Reduction or elimination of hazardous materials within waste • Reduction of toxic emissions during incineration

36. 5.2 Eco-design Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (1) • Design for Environment (DfE): “thesystematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle” (Fiksel, 1996 in Wrisberg et al. 2002). • DfE… • focuses on existing products and processes that fulfil a specific function (function-oriented systems) • expands the designscope towards environmental and social implications of products and processes Design for Environment

37. 5.2 Eco-design Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product Design (2) • Sustainable Product Design: investigates possibilities for improvement on a broader scale. • Examples: • Alternative Function Fulfilment (changes the way in which a specific function or need is fulfilled) • System innovation (redesigning of product production systems, creating ‘closed-loop’ economies etc.) Sustainable Product Design

38. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis (MFA) Analysis of Material Flows in a Region 5.3 Material Flow Analysis

39. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Contents • Why MFA? • What is MFA? • Rationale of MFA: the Mass Balance Principle • Framework of MFA; • System Definition • Quantification of Flows and Stocks • Interpretation • Applications of MFA

40. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (1) Because products do not pollute, but materials do… Natural Resource Depletion Waste Absorption Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: waste sink Waste Residuals (Pollution) Extractions of materials

41. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (1) …hence, material flows and stocks from the economy are crucial to the understanding of environmental problems Material flows and accumulations Hazard potential Throughput Hazard potential Throughput Quantity-aspect Quality-aspect

42. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Why MFA? (2) • … and eventually solutions are based on an analysis of environmental problems in material/physical terms (Van der Voet, 1996) Natural Resource Depletion Waste Absorption Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: resource base Environment: waste sink Pollution • Quantitatively: lower materials throughput • Qualitatively: less hazardous materials Extractions of materials

43. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis What is MFA? (1) MFA is a tool for systematic research of flows and stocks of materialsfrom ‘cradle to grave’ (LCA!) in a region: • MFA is useful for: • Identification of sources of environmental pollution • Identification of accumulations of hazardous substances • Identification of potential control points, useful forenvironmental management

44. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis What is MFA? (2) • MFA describes the industrial ‘metabolism’ of a region: the transfer, storage and transformation of substances within an anthropogenic (=human controlled) system and the exchange of these substances with the environment (Brunner and Rechberger 2004). • Examples: • Sources, pathways and sinks for mercury in a watershed • Nitrogen flows and stocks in the Malang area • Sometimes MFA is applied on systems of smaller scale; for example the flows and stocks of heavy metals in a waste incineration plant

45. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Processes within subsystem ‘air’ Economy-Environment Boundary Processes within subsystem ‘water’ Processes within subsystem ‘earth’ Systematic analysis of regional material flows and stocks • Systematic description of Flows and Stocks of materials in a region where activities in the anthroposhere are taking place • There is an exchange of materials between and within anthropogenic (economic) and environmental subsystems Systematic overview of material flows in a region

46. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Rationale of MFA: The Mass Balance Principle (1) • Mass balance: the law of conservation of mass • Mass output = Mass input + Mass accumulation 2 1 3 • Xp-q: Material Flow from process ‘p’ to process ‘q’ • X0-1=X1-2 + X1-3 • X1-2=X2-0 • X1-3=X3-0 • X0-1= X2-0+ X3-0

47. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Advantages of applying Mass Balance Principle • Mass balances can be applied at different system levels: • Single processes • Complex combinations of processes at smaller and larger scales: • Household • Country • World • Valuable tool to calculate regional streams that are hardly measurable, like in waste residual outputs(Ayres 1989). • Efficient way to obtain accurate results even when some data are missing

48. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (1) Problem 1 Goal and system definition 2 Quantification of flows and stocks 3 Interpretation

49. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (1) • Goal definition = selection of substance or material to be investigated: single element (Substance Flow Analysis) or group of substances (Material Flow Analysis) • System definition = definition of system boundaries and relevant processes • Spatial boundary: Geographical or administrative boundary (e.g. watershed or country) • Temporal boundary: Flows per hour or month or year. Often 1 year because of data availabillity • Selection of relevant processes: Only processes that are significant to the substance(s) under investigation 1

50. 5.3 Material Flow Analysis Framework of MFA (2) 2 • Quantification of stocks and flows: • Calculate mass flows of goods that enter and leave processes (measurements or applying mass balance) • Calculate substance flows within these flows (multiplying mass flows of goods with element concentrations) • Calculate stocks: is there any type of accumulation occuring? Example of mass flow of goods and a substance (Cadmium) in a municipal waste incinerator