Hello, Everyone!

1. Hello, Everyone!

2. Part One Review Exercises

3. Questions • 1. What’s the difference between phonetics and phonology? • 2. Define the following terms: • a. phoneme • b. allophone • c. minimal pair

4. Part Two New Content

5. Chapter 5 Semantics

6. 5.1 What is semantics?

7. 5.1.1. Definition • Semantics is the study of meaning. • More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. （胡壮麟 2001：158）

8. 5.1.2. The origin of semantics • 1. The French linguist Michel Bréal first coined the word sémantique in 1893. But it was in his book Essai de sémantique published in 1897 that Bréal used the term in its present-day sense as the science of meaning.

9. The origin of semantics • 2. Though the term “semantics” has only a history of a little over a hundred years, there were discussions in the works of Greek philosopher Plato as early as in the fifth century before Christ. • 3. In China, Lao Zi discussed similar questions even earlier. (ibid.)

10. 5.1.3. A brief history of semantics • 束定芳（2000：1-9）根据语义学近100年来的发展过程和特点，把语义学研究概括为四个阶段：准备阶段、词源学阶段、结构主义阶段、和多元化阶段。

11. （一）准备阶段 • 1. 时间跨度：约1825-1880 • 2. 条件：历史比较语言学在德国的兴起、浪漫主义诗人对语言词语表现出的特别兴趣。 • 3. 主要事件：德国语文学家Reisig把语法研究的内容分为：符号学（semasiology）、词源学（etymology）和句法学（syntax）。其中，符号学的目标就是语义变化及其原理。

12. （二）词源学阶段 • 1. 时间跨度：约1880-1930 • 2. 条件：语义学家对语义变化的类型、方式和原因发生了浓厚的兴趣。 • 3. 主要事件： Essai de sémantique的出版、Bréal将语义学这一新学科的目标明确规定为研究意义的变化机制原因，并根据逻辑学和语文学等标准对意义变化的方式和变化的原因进行了分类。

13. （三）结构主义语义学阶段 • 1. 时间跨度：约1930-1970 • 2. 条件：Saussure 的结构主义理论：语言的共时状态是一种有组织的结构系统，其中的成分相互以来，个体的意义取决于它与系统中其他个体的关系。 • 3. 主要事件：Trier提出著名的“语义场”（semantic field）理论。

14. （四）多元化阶段 • 1. 时间跨度：20世纪70年代—— • 2. 主要特点： • （1）多学科：语言学、哲学、心理学、符号学、阐释学、现象学、人工智能、机器翻译、人机对话等 • （2）跨学科：如数学+语义学=计算语言学 • （3）多纬度：如认知语义学从人的大脑的认知特点和方法来研究词汇意义的形成、内容、和联系方式及其理解等。 • （4）多层次：词汇、句子、话语；语法因素、语用因素的影响等。

15. 附：哲学与语义学 • 如果我们的兴趣在于哲学语义学，可以基本上不考虑语言学家的研究。但是如果我们的兴趣在于语言学中的语义学，则非得了解哲学家、逻辑学家的语义研究不可。语言学家的工作很大程度上以哲学家的概念和框架为基础，为出发点。（徐烈炯 1990：前言）

16. 5.1.4. Meaning: The object of semantics • Question: • What is meaning?

17. Question: What does “mean” or “meaning” mean in the following sentences? • 1. What is the meaning of “triangle”? • 2. I did not mean to hurt you. • 3. He never says what he means. • 4. She rarely means what she says. • 5. Life without faith has no meaning. • 6. What do you mean by the word “concept”? • 7. He means well, but he is rather clumsy. • 8. Fame and riches mean nothing to the true scholar. • 9. It was John I meant, not Harry. • (Lyons 1977: 1-3)

18. 5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning

19. 5.2.1 The naming theory

20. 1. Definition • The naming theory（命名说）is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. • It is also called reference theory（指称论）.

21. 2. Linguistic model of naming theory • Form object • 1. 唯名论（nominalism）：人们用来表示事物的词，其形式和词所指的事物之间并没有内在的联系，是约定俗成的。 • 2. 唯实论（realism）/自然论（naturalism）：在词和所表示的事物之间存在着一种根本的联系，词只不过是人们给外部事物所起的自然名称。也就是说，一个物体叫什么名称，是物体本身具有某种实际属性决定的。

22. 3. Important figures in the naming theory • 1. Plato（柏拉图）：词义就是事物、行为和属性的名称，或者说词语有指义或命名的功能。（《对话录》） • 2. Ruessell（罗素）：一个词的意义就是一个对象，即一个词意指着某客体，也就是代表着一个客体。（《数学原理》）

23. 4.Some problems with the naming theory • 1. The theory seems applicable to nouns only. • 2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all. • 3. There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. • 4. Some words may have different meanings in different contexts. • 5. The same reference may have different names. (the morning star Vs the evening star)

24. 5. Answers from the supporters • Chase: 凡是找不到“所指者”的抽象词句都应划归语义学的废话异类，因为他们仅仅是没有意义的瞎嚷嚷。（The Tyranny of Words）

25. 5.2.2 The conceptualist view

26. 1. Definition • The conceptualist view（概念论）is one concerning meaning. According to this view, there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. • It is also called ideational theory（观念论）.

27. SEMANTIC TRIANGLE THOUGHT/REFERENCE 1. 形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义的载体。 2. 意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映，两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。 3. 形式和所指之间没有必然的联系，故而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可以用不同的形式来表示。（王寅 2001：36-37） 2. Linguistic model of the conceptualist view SYMBOL/FORM REFERENT (Ogden and Richards 1923: The meaning of meaning)

28. 3. The strong points of the conceptualist view • 概念论解决了指称论留下的两个难题： • 1. 同一物体可以有不同的名称，可以表达不同的意义。（如“启明星”和“长庚星”同指一物，表达的意义却不同） • 2. 有的语言符号形式有意义，而没有所指，例如虚词。（ibid.:37）

29. 4. Some important figures in the conceptualist view • 1. Aristotle（亚里斯多德）: 事情有本质，但只有语言形式才有意义。本质是能从对象中分离出来的、又能与词语相结合的东西，本质即意义。（《解释篇》） • 2. Locke（洛克）：文字不是本身就具有意义的，而在于他们所表示的观念。 • 3. Frege（弗雷格）（现代语义理论的开创者）：意义有系统意义（sense）和外指意义（reference）之分。词语与现实世界不是直接的关系，还有“系统意义”这一心理表征的层面，语句的意义就是它所表达的思想或概念，这是更为基本的意义，是外指意义的基础。（1892: On Sense and Reference）

30. 5. A problem with the conceptualist view • What is precisely the link between the symbol and concept? • Or what is exactly meant by “thinking of a concept”?

31. 6. Question • What do you think of when you here or see the words: • 1. 花 • 2. 鸟 • 3. 幸福 • 4. 悲伤 • 5. 刘翔 • 6. 泰山

32. 5.2.3 Contextualism

33. 1. Definition • Contextualism（语境论）： is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.

34. 1. Situational context refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation. 2. Linguistic context, some times known as context, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the ‘meaning” of the word, and also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. 2.Situational context VS. linguistic context

35. 3.The linguistic model of contextualism • Language is always used in a certain context. Context Speaker A language speaker B

36. 4. Important figures of contextualism • 1. Malinowski: For a large class of cases……the meaning of a word is its use in the language. • 2. Firth: We shall know a word by the company it keeps. • 3. Halliday: Meaning is the bridge between linguistic forms and situation.(1978: Language as Social Semiotic)

37. 5. A problem with the contextualism • Context is such a complicated concept, consisting of so many factors. • 如：世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟 2002：“语境研究的多元化”）

38. 6.Question • What may this sentence possibly mean? • The National Day is over now.

39. 5.2.3 Behaviorism

40. 1. Definition • Behaviorism is a view which draws on behaviorist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms. According to this view, the meaning of a language form is the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. (Bloomfield 1933: 139)

41. 2. revision • The meaning of a linguistic form is the feature common to all situations in which it is used. (Bloch and Trager 1942: 6)

42. 3. The linguistic model of the behaviorism • Jill Jack • S________ r …… s ________ R • Meaning consists in the relationship between speech indicated by the small letters r…… s and the practical events represented by the capitalized letters S and R that precede and follow themrespectively.

43. 4. Question • Analyze the meaning of the sentence “I’m Thirsty” from the behaviorist view: • Jill Jack • S________ r …… s ________ R • S = Jill sees an apple • r = Jill says “I’m Thirsty” • s = Jack hears Jill says “I’m thirsty” • R = Jack picks the apple for Jill But what if “R = Jack turns away”?

44. 5. Important Figures of Behaviorism • 1. Watson（华生）：词的意义就是对词的有条件的反应。 • 2. Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）：意义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。（meaning as speaker’s stimulus and hearer’s response）

45. 6. Problems with the behaviorism • What if the listener does not cooperate or pretends not to understand? • 1. 在许多不同的情景中，语词和词句的意义是相同的。 • 2. 意义不能等同于听话人的反应，因为： • （1）对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。 • （2）对不同的语言有同样的反应。 • （3）对话语没有反应。 • （4）人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可能作出反应。（束定芳 2000：28）

46. Appendix Classification of meaning

47. 1. Grice的四分法 • 1. 固定意义（timeless meaning） • 2. 应用固定意义（applied timeless meaning） • 3. 情景意义（occasion meaning） • 4. 说话者情景意义（utterer’s occasion meaning）

48. 2. Kitty的两分法 • 1. 第一性意义（first-order meaning） • 2. 第二性意义（second-order meaning）

49. 3. Leech的七分法 • 1. 概念意义（conceptual） • 2. 伴随意义（connotative） • 3. 社会意义（social） • 4. 社会意义（affective） • 5. 情感意义（reflective） • 6. 搭配意义（collocative） • 7. 主题意义（thematic） 联想意义 (associatve)

50. Part Three Homework