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Enlightenment

Enlightenment. Era in which people adopted views and methods of scientists and scientific philosophers… as Immanuel Kant said, “ Dare to Know ” Cast off ideas of past and use reason to probe for answers on the nature of Mankind: Applied to politics, economics, and human behavior.

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Enlightenment

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  1. Enlightenment • Era in which people adopted views and methods of scientists and scientific philosophers… as Immanuel Kant said, “Dare to Know” • Cast off ideas of past and use reason to probe for answers on the nature of Mankind: Applied to politics, economics, and human behavior

  2. Enlightened thinkers not organized like the scientists • Met in Salons (informal discussion groups organized mainly by women) • Typically called philosophes (popularized the Enlightenment) • Ideas printed in pamphlets and distributed • Called the Republic of Letters in France

  3. Central Themes • Progress: Humanity improves via: • Knowledge of the natural world & Technology • Overcoming ignorance bred through superstition • Overcoming cruelty & violence through social improvements & government action • Reason: Logic over tradition/superstition • Education: Education! Academies • Empiricism: You don’t know until you experience!

  4. Enlightened People… • Believed in absolutes • Universe is a closed system • Supernatural NOT involved in human life • This is a sharp contrast to earlier thought: Open universe where God, Satan, etc interact with humans

  5. Various ‘Schools’ Rationalists: Advocated perfectibility of society: Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. If something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of that class. For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal." • Descartes… • Spinoza (1632-1677) • Equated God and nature • Mechanical universe (Deism)

  6. Empiricists: Emphasized observation as basis for epistemology: Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. Here’s an example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all grandfathers are bald." • Francis Bacon… • John Locke…

  7. Baron Paul d’Holbach • Humans are machines governed by outside forces • Freewill, God, immortality of soul are foolish • Leibnez • Optimism theory

  8. Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) • Spirit of Laws: theorized separation of powers and checks and balances • Basis for American governmental structure

  9. Greatest of the Philosophes • Francois-Marie Arouet AKA Voltaire (1694-1778) • Hated Catholic Church and “narrowness and bigotry that was the heart of all religious traditions” • He was a deist • Spent 11 months in Bastille for his sharp tongue

  10. Voltaire cont. • Felt man needed to be free from religion “Écrasez l’infame!” (Crush the horrible thing!) • He LOVED the English • Relative religious tolerance • Freedom to express oneself in print • Honor English showed to Newton at his funeral

  11. Voltaire cont. • Published Candide • Pessimistic work • Attacked Optimism reflected in Enlightened ideas

  12. Various Wise Guys • Marquis di Beccaria: • Try to humanize criminal law • Mary Wollstonecraft (gender theory) • Men are the problem…

  13. Economic:Physiocrats: Opposed mercantilism • Quesnay • Reform agrarian order • Adam Smith • Wealth of Nations • ‘Bible’ of capitalism • Laissez-faire

  14. Enlightened Despots • Catherine the Great of Russia (r 1762-1796) • Joseph II of Austria (r 1765-1790) • Frederick II of Prussia (r 1740-1786)

  15. Some reacted against the mechanical universe typical of the Enlightenment Some rejected the methodology, or premise Some divided the universe into parts Some rejected the whole thing and reinstituted the open system and supernatural universe Critics of the Enlightenment

  16. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) “All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains” • Most radical of Philosophes • Theory of direct democracy • General Will • Noble Savage • Rationalism & Civilization are destroying the individual • Influenced the later Romantic movement

  17. David Hume (Scottish) • Emphasized limitations of human reasoning • Mind is a bundle of impressions • Became a dogmatic skeptic: undermined the Enlightenment • Live with “total suspension of judgment”

  18. Immanuel Kant • Two ‘realities’ • Physics: Phenomena • Metaphysics: Noumena • Science describes natural world but does not help with morals • Source of knowledge…

  19. Categorical Imperative • Morals/ethics based on internal rationale • Self-serving action is not virtuous • Action that obeys the rational law of morality is virtuous • Rational law of morality = duty, service to the whole, self-sacrifice… • Act as if the maxim (premise) from which you act were to become ‘universal’ through your will

  20. Other Movements • German Pietism • Methodism & John Wesley • Great Awakening in English Colonies & Jonathan Edwards • Roman Catholic Jansenism • Jewish Hasidism • Romantic Movement (late 18th – Early 19th centuries)

  21. Rembrant Anatomy Lesson 1632

  22. Vemeer Woman Weighing Gold 1657

  23. RubensCountry Fair1635

  24. Velázquez Spinners 1599-1660

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