Chapter 2: Conducting Research

1. Chapter 2: Conducting Research Psychology is an experimental science. Theories of behavior must be supported by evidence.

2. 5 Steps of Scientific Research • Form a Question • Form a Hypothesis • Test the Hypothesis • Analyze the Results of the Test • Draw Conclusions

3. Form a Question • Do people learn by observing others? • Do people learn better in small groups or alone? • Do clients prefer counselor self-disclosure? • Do older children (birth order) do better in school? • Are the babies of the family spoiled? QUESTION MUST BE MEASUREABLE! Are athletes nicer, prettier? (How do you measure this?)

4. Form a Hypothesis • Make an educated guess • A child who watches Power Rangers will be more aggressive • A child who plays Medal of Honor will most likely go into the military • Students who sit in the front of the class get better grades • Kids will buy the candy closest to them at the camp store window • Grandpa’s and Grandma’s drive slower

5. Test the Hypothesis • CAREFULLY EXAMINE THE BEHAVIOR IN A NATURAL OR CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT • Decide what information is needed to test the hypothesis (What is the best way to gather information?) • If you want to see if fat people eat bad foods, survey their carts at the grocery store before checkout • If you want to see if skinny people eat slower, observe them in a café • Survey questions DO NOT always work…people often tell you what they think you want to hear

6. Test the Hypothesis Continued • GATHER THE INFORMATION: This could take weeks, months, or even YEARS • Conduct a survey • Take a survey • Observations

7. Analyze the Results of the Test • SUMMARIZE THE DATA STATISTICALLY • Look for patterns and relationships in the data • Use complex statistical tests to see if results are better than chance

8. Draw Conclusions • DID THE OBSERVATIONS SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS? • Were there predicted results? • Were there unpredicted results? • Do you have any predictions for future results? • How can you adjust or refine the original hypothesis?

9. Replication • For findings to be confirmed, they must be REPLICATED with a different sample of subjects or else results may be a random occurrence. • If you repeat your findings with different people (gender, socioeconomic status, age, education, geographic region) and get similar results, your findings are more robust.

10. New Questions • Perhaps your research methods will lead you to formulate new hypothesis tests, methods of information gathering, and results for further discussion.

11. Research Methods: Selecting Samples • Important to carefully consider what group of people you will examine (ex: if you are interested in behaviors in the parking lot…don’t ask freshmen) • To accurately predict an outcome, your sample must be representative of the target population.

12. Selecting Samples: Two Ways • Random Sample • Individuals are selected by chance from the target population • Everyone has an equal chance of being chosen • If it is big enough, it will accurately represent the entire target population • Stratified Sample • Subgroups in target population are represented proportionally • U.S. by race • 74% non-Hispanic white • 10% Eskimo / Native Americans • 3% Asian • 10% Hispanic • 12% African American • U.S. by sex, by grade, by age, by race…you can’t always account for all these • The bigger your sample, the more likely it will be stratified

13. Selecting Samples • Generalizing Results: researchers are careful not to generalize their findings to groups not represented in their sample • Can be bias because of gender, race, geographic location, socioeconomic status or volunteer bias • People who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from people who do not • More willing to disclose personal information • More interested in research • More spare time • People who complete magazine studies • Read magazines • Have time to fill out the surveys • Different leisure preferences

14. Survey Method • Gathering information by asking people directly • Through a questionnaire • Through interviews in person or over the phone or e-mail • Advantages • Questionnaire – people can be more anonymous • Interviews – more likely to do it and not throw it away • Issues of confidentiality or honesty in all methods • People will sometimes say what they think you want to hear • People may not always tell the truth • People are not always comfortable sharing their thoughts

15. Methods of Observation • Learn a lot from watching people • Psychologists use careful methods of observation to investigate behavior

16. Testing Method • Psychologists use tests (I.Q. tests, personality tests, aptitude tests, vocational tests, etc.) • Give us information about the persons (learning ability, temperament, character, special skills, career interests, etc.)

17. Case Study Method • In depth investigation of an individual or small group • Use what they learn to generalize to a larger population • EX: Genie at 20 months was locked in a small room by her dad until 13. Mom fed her, Dad beat her, no one spoke to her. She herself did not say a word. She eventually learned language, but not as well as most people. Case study conclusion: the critical period for language development is between 20 months and 13 years. • Problems with case studies: • Difficult to REPLICATE • Often biased with interview format • People don’t always remember • Some people distort the past • Researchers subtly bias respondents to answer how they want to hear

18. Longitudinal Method • Looks at how people change over time (often years or decades) • Information collected at intervals • Tend to take long, be expensive, risky – no guarantee that people will want to continue to participate

19. Cross-Sectional Method • Includes and compares different people of different ages • Less reliable than longitudinal • Cannot be certain that age alone is responsible for differences in behavior

20. Naturalistic Observation • Observe people in actual environment • Homes • Schools • Offices • restaurants • Do not interfere with the organism while observing • EX: people’s eating habits, grocery store carts, fast-slow chewers

21. Laboratory Observation Method • Observe people and animals in a laboratory setting (more often animals) • Can sometimes control variables in a lab setting (does light or noise influence behavior?) • TV Violence: observe kids’ behavior after watching a violent TV show

22. Analyzing Observations • Correlations • How closely is one thing related to another? • The stronger the correlation, the more likely they are to be related • Ex: Tall = basketball player • EX: Talk = teacher

23. Correlations • Positive Correlation: as one goes up, so does the other • EX: Education and salary; height and basketball player; money and happiness (?) • Negative Correlation: as one goes up the other goes down • EX: stress and health; age and height; involvement in extracurricular activities and grades (?)

24. Correlations • Correlations are limited. They describe the relationship but they do not reveal cause and effect. One thing does not necessarily cause the other.

25. Experimental Method • Used to establish cause and effect in research. • One group of subjects gets treatment (experimental group) • One group of subjects does not get treatment (control group) • Randomly assign subjects to each group. Assume other differencs balance out with randomization • Behavior is observed or measured • All other conditions are held constant • If different – cause = treatment

26. Variables • Independent Variable: factor that researchers manipulate so that they can determine its effect • Dependent Variable: behavior being measured or thought to be influenced by independent variable • Example: Hypothesis: Children watching violent TV are more likely to be violent • Independent Variables • Power Rangers TV show, Barney TV show (Experimental Groups) • No TV show (control group) • Dependent Variable: behavior after watching the show

27. Variables • EX: Hypothesis: Review helps students perform better on tests • Class 1 gets a review game before a test • Class 2 does not get a review game before the test • Independent variable = review game • Dependent Variable = test scores

28. Placebo Effect • Substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in it • Doctors find this to be true with certain hypochondria patients and medication

29. Blind Studies • Single Blind Study: participants unaware of whether they are receiving treatment or a placebo • Double Blind Study: participants and researchers are unaware of who is in which group. Researchers remain less bias.

30. Experimental Method • Advantages: researchers are able to manipulate variables to determine cause and effect. Laboratory setting enables researchers to monitor and record all stages of the experiment. • Disadvantages: conditions created in the lab may not accurately reflect the conditions of real life. Experiments may be subject to volunteer bias, researcher bias and the placebo effect.

31. Ethical Issues • Ethics: standards for proper and responsible behavior. Psychologists promote dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, maintain scientific integrity. • Psychological research should NOT be harmful (consider the experimentation in Nazi concentration camps) • Animal experimentation: need to present all findings (controversial)

32. Confidentiality and Informed Consent • Information is private (subjects more likely to disclose true information and feelings) • People agree to participate in a research study after they know what its about and choose to participate • Deception can only take place if the potential benefits outweigh the potential harm • When the participants receive an explanation of the study after it occurred.