Exploring learning transfer in L2 writing education Department of Applied English Kaohsiung Shih Chien University Ju

1. Mark Andrew James Arizona State University Mark.A.James@asu.edu http://www.public.asu.edu/~mjames6/index.html Exploring learning transfer in L2 writing educationDepartment of Applied EnglishKaohsiung Shih Chien UniversityJune 13, 2012

2. What is learning transfer? Learning transfer occurs “when learning in one context or with one set of materials impacts on performance in another context or with another set of materials” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6452). For example ... ... knowing how to ride a bicycle  learning how to ride a motorcycle; ... learning math in school  shopping outside school.

3. ... a topic of widespread interest • Psychology: Learning transfer has been actively studied for over a century in psychology (Haskell, 2001). • Education: “When students cannot perform tasks only slightly different from those learned in class, or when they fail to appropriately apply their classroom learning in settings outside of school, then education is deemed to have failed” (Marini & Genereux, 1995, p.1). • Human resources development (HRD): U.S. corporations spent $58.5 billion on workplace training in 2007 (Training, 2007), with the obvious expectation that the results of this training would transfer to the workplace.

4. Learning transfer is a fundamental goal for L2 writing education • “[O]ne of the most important aspects of an EAP reading/writing class (or any ESL/EFL class) is the development of transfer of learning” (Johns, 1993, p.283) (emphasis mine). • “The goals of most English for academic purposes (EAP) writing classes are transcendent. That is, the usual purpose is to enable students to write better not for EAP writing classes but for academic purposes” (Leki & Carson, 1997, p.39) (emphasis mine).

5. How “far” students transfer learning is important to discussions of L2 writing education Far transfer ... -- Cognitive perspectives on writing (e.g., Flower & Hayes, 1981); -- Process-oriented approaches to writing instruction (Zamel, 1976); -- General writing skills instruction (GWSI) (Petraglia, 1995); -- English-for-general-academic-purposes (EGAP) instruction (Jordan, 1997); -- Language-for-specific-purposes “education” (Widdowson, 1984). Near transfer ... -- Sociocultural perspectives on writing (e.g., Russell, 1995); -- Genre-oriented approaches to writing instruction (e.g., Swales, 1990); -- Writing-in-the-disciplines (WID) programs (Bazerman et al., 2005); -- English-for-specific-academic-purposes (ESAP) instruction (Jordan, 1997); -- Language-for-specific-purposes “training” (Widdowson, 1984).

6. There is a need to understand how learning transfers in L2 writing education • “Positive findings of transfer, near and far, suggest that whether transfer occurs is too bald a question. It can, but often does not. One needs to ask under what conditions transfer appears” (Perkins & Salomon, 1994, p.6455) (emphasis mine).

7. There is a need to understand how learning transfers in L2 writing education • The most important question about genre-based approaches to writing instruction is "whether, to what extent, and under what conditions skills acquired within one genre are transferable to another" (Swales, 1990, p.233) (emphasis mine); this is "a highly significant investigative issue" (p.234). • “[I]t is assumed that students will transfer skills from the [EAP class] to the content class examination, and then ultimately to their other content classes. But we do not know what conditions must exist for this positive transfer to take place.” (Snow, 1993, p.45) (emphasis mine).

8. What do we know about learning transfer in L2 writing education? Learning transfer can occur, but it is not inevitable (e.g., Leki & Carson, 1994; Leki, 1995; James, 2006). • “There is no guarantee that skills and strategies learned in an ESL program actually will be applied in new situations” (Spack, 1997, p.50); • “[T]ransfer from one domain to another is, at the very least, difficult for learners” (Tardy, 2006, p.92).

9. Learner Learning task Transfer task Learning context Transfer context Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

10. Learner Learning task Transfer task Learning context Transfer context Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

11. Learner Learning task Transfer task Learning context Transfer context Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

12. Transfer context/task • In studies of ESL students' interactions with instructors and classmates, ESL students have described: • a “wall” between themselves and native English-speaking (NES) classmates due to different background knowledge and values (Harklau, 1994); • NES classmates’ lack of interest in ideas put forth by ESL students during collaborative group work (Cheng & Fox, 2008; Leki, 2001); • relatively little effort by NES classmates to complete assignments (Leki, 2003); • instructors’ desire to deceive students, refusal to provide information to students, or lack of understanding of students’ questions (Leki, 2006).

13. Transfer context/task • Transfer climate is the support for learning transfer that an individual perceives in the target context of instruction (Burke & Baldwin, 1999). • ... for example, in EAP writing instruction, transfer climate involves students’ perceptions of support for learning transfer from instructors and classmates, and perceptions of outcomes (e.g., grades, work efficiency) of learning transfer.

14. Transfer climate study: Setting and participants • A 1-semester, 3-credit EAP writing course at a large American university. • 52 students from 5 sections of the course participated: • Most were in their first year of university study. • 29 were male and 23 were female. • They represented 22 different nationalities, the most common being Saudi Arabian (12 participants), South Korean (11), Indian (5), and Chinese (3). • They represented a range of majors, the most common being business (15 participants), engineering (11), and the natural sciences (5).

15. Transfer climate study: Data collection • Each student participated in 1 semi-structured interview. The main questions were: • Do instructors in other courses ... • expect strong writing skills? • provide feedback on students’ writing skills? • react positively to your use of skills from the EAP course? • Are classmates in other courses concerned about writing? • Do instructors / classmates in other courses ... • use the same kind of writing you have been learning in the EAP course? • talk about connections between those courses and EAP courses? • encourage students to transfer learning from EAP courses? • have positive attitudes toward EAP courses? • Will using skills from the EAP course help you get higher grades and / or work faster in other courses?

16. Transfer climate study: Data collection • Each student participated in 1 semi-structured interview. The main questions were: • Do instructors in other courses ... • expect strong writing skills? • provide feedback on students’ writing skills? • react positively to your use of skills from the EAP course? • Are classmates in other courses concerned about writing? • Do instructors / classmates in other courses ... • use the same kind of writing you have been learning in the EAP course? • talk about connections between those courses and EAP courses? • encourage students to transfer learning from EAP courses? • have positive attitudes toward EAP courses? • Will using skills from the EAP course help you get higher grades and / or work faster in other courses?

17. Transfer climate study: Data collection • Each student participated in 1 semi-structured interview. The main questions were: • Do instructors in other courses ... • expect strong writing skills? • provide feedback on students’ writing skills? • react positively to your use of skills from the EAP course? • Are classmates in other courses concerned about writing? • Do instructors / classmates in other courses ... • use the same kind of writing you have been learning in the EAP course? • talk about connections between those courses and EAP courses? • encourage students to transfer learning from EAP courses? • have positive attitudes toward EAP courses? • Will using skills from the EAP course help you get higher grades and / or work faster in other courses?

18. Transfer climate study: Data analysis • Step 1: I put each response into 1 of 5 categories: ”yes”, “no”, “varied”, “don’t know”, or “unclear”. For example ... Researcher: Do your instructors expect strong writing skills? Student: In some courses they do, but in others, no.  category: Varied. • Step 2: I identified reasons students gave for unsupportive aspects of transfer climate and put them into categories. For example ... Student: My professors don’t expect strong writing skills. I make grammar mistakes on my lab reports, and they don’t take off any marks.  category: No connection between language use and grades.

19. Results from quantitative analysis Student’s response

20. Results from quantitative analysis Student’s response

21. Results from quantitative analysis Student’s response

22. Results from quantitative analysis Student’s response

23. Results from qualitative analysis 9 categories of reasons for unsupportive transfer climate: • explicit negative reference to EAP course • explicit negative reference to academic writing • effective language use • ineffective or careless language use • little or no connection between language use and grades • unrelated activities • unrelated disciplines • limited resources • low-level courses

24. 1. Explicit negative reference to EAP writing courses Researcher: What about other students? [How do they feel about EAP writing courses?] Student: Some of my friends took [another EAP writing course]. They told me it is kind of a waste of time. So they feel negative. (Student 12)

25. 5. Little or no connection between language use and grades Researcher: How do you know [instructors] don't expect students to have good writing skills? Student: Yes, I sometimes write my opinion in [a Human Services courses] casually, and sometimes I make a mistake with grammar, but she doesn't care. She gives me full points. (Student 19)

26. Transfer climate study: Summary • A transfer climate perspective can be helpful in showing the challenges EAP students face in other courses ... • EAP students can perceive support for learning transfer in a variety of ways; but, they can also perceive a lack of support for learning transfer in a variety of ways. • Various features of a mainstream academic setting can contribute to negative transfer climate (e.g., explicit negative references to academic writing; little or no connection between language use and grades), and therefore might be added to a list of challenges EAP students face in mainstream academic settings.

27. Transfer climate study: Implications for research • By examining students’ perceptions, this study complements research that has examined mainstream academic settings from other angles (e.g., faculty perspectives). • By examining a broad range of features of mainstream academic settings, this study complements research that has examined students’ perceptions of language-related difficulties. • By examining support for learning transfer, this study complements research that has examined students’ perceptions of interactions with teachers/peers.

28. Transfer climate study: Implications for teaching • This study reveals challenges EAP students face in mainstream academic courses. • ... opportunities to transfer learning from an EAP course occur in situations in which students may feel varying degrees of support. • So, EAP teachers may want to discuss transfer climate with students, so students are prepared to react in situations where the climate is unsupportive.

29. Learner Learning task Transfer task Learning context Transfer context Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

30. Motivation study: Background • Motivation is critical to L2 learning and has been the topic of much research (e.g., Dornyei, 2001, 2003). • Earlier research has focused on motivation to learn a L2; this study focuses instead on motivation to transfer L2 learning. • Transfer is important in L2 education, and it is not automatic.

31. Motivation study: Definition L2 transfer motivation = a combination of effort, desire, and attitudes that influences whether a student will apply L2 learning from one context in a different context.

32. Motivation study: Research questions • Are students motivated to transfer learning from a L2 course? • What factors influence this motivation?

33. Motivation study: Setting and participants • A1-semester, 3-credit EAP writing course at a large American university • Participants: 40 students from 4 sections of the course. • 75% second-year; • average age 21; • 67.5% male, 32.5% female; • 19 different nationalities (most common Saudi Arabian [17.5%], South Korean [17.5%], Chinese [10%], and Taiwanese [10%]); • Wide range of majors (most common business [35%], engineering [20%], natural sciences [12.5%], and design [10%])

34. Motivation study: Data collection • A single semi-structured interview with each participant, focusing on the following questions: • Desire. Is it important to you that you actually use what you have learned or practiced in the EAP course in your other courses? Why or why not? • Favorable attitudes. Do you (or would you) take pleasure in using what you have learned or practiced in the EAP course in your other courses? Why or why not? • Effort. Do you make an effort to use what you have learned or practiced in the EAP course in other courses? Why or why not?

35. Motivation study: Data analysis • For the first research question (i.e., Are students motivated to transfer learning from this L2 course?), I put the students’ answers into categories: “yes”, “no”, or “mixed”. • For the second research question (i.e., What factors influence this motivation?), I put the students’ reasons into categories.

36. Motivation study: Results • Research question 1: Are students motivated to transfer learning from this L2 course? * One participant reported that s/he made an effort to not transfer learning from the EAP course to other courses.

37. Motivation study: Results • Research question 2: What factors influence this motivation? • ... eight factors: • Perceptions of resource availability • Perceptions of opportunity for transfer • Perceptions of requirement for transfer • Personal beliefs about transfer • Expected impact of transfer • Perceptions of competence • Attitudes toward learning outcomes • Attitudes toward learning and transfer context/tasks

38. 1. Perceptions of resource availability Researcher: Why have you not made an effort? Why not make more effort? Participant: Time is a constant. [... The student explained for the next approximately 30 seconds that s/he planned to make more effort in the future.] Researcher: So am I correct that you have not made an effort to use things you learned in [the EAP course] in these courses, only because of time? Participant: Yes, only because of time. I can’t think. I have to finish my assignments, and I have to learn it. So whatever comes into print, I’m doing it. (Participant 3)

39. 2. Perceptions of opportunity for transfer Researcher: Why do you feel that way? [that using things you have learned or practiced in the EAP course in other courses is not that important] Participant: Because I think that writing for the English course is unique. I mean it’s really different from the other course writing. It is specific. Something specific in this writing. Because I learned a lot of writing before, and it's totally differentfrom the other course. I mean English is English. It's just writing for English. It doesn't, maybe it helps the writing with the other subjects. But other subjects is not exactly what the English writing is. (Participant 2)

40. Motivation study: Summary • Research question 1: Were students motivated to transfer learning from this L2 course? • yes, but this was a small proportion of this group of students. • Research question 2: What factors influenced this motivation? • factors related to the context (i.e., resources, opportunities, requirements, impact, learning outcomes, courses/tasks) and the learner (i.e., beliefs about transfer, competence).

41. Motivation study: Discussion • These findings are valuable because they ... • suggest that transfer motivation cannot be assumed in L2 education, and therefore highlight L2 transfer motivation as an issue that is worth attention. • overlap with research on transfer motivation in other areas (e.g., workplace training), and therefore suggest that such research is relevant to future research on L2 transfer motivation. • overlap with research on motivation to learn L2s, and therefore suggest that motivation to learn a L2 and motivation to transfer L2 learning may be influenced by similar factors.

42. Motivation study: Discussion • Implications for teaching practice ... • if generating motivation to transfer L2 learning is seen as an important goal in L2 education, the findings of this study (i.e., that L2 students can have gaps in transfer motivation) may cause concern. • However, this study also uncovers a range of factors that L2 teachers can address to try to generate transfer motivation.

43. Learner Learning task Transfer task Learning context Transfer context Elements of learning transfer situations (from James, 2007, adapted from Marini and Genereux, 1995)

44. Learning context/task • Learning transfer can be promoted by: • the integration of academic tasks in an EAP writing course (Braine, 1988; Carson, 2000; Meyer, 1996); • the provision of a range of conceptual activities in an EAP writing course (Currie, 1993); • having students use disciplinary portfolios (Hirvela, 1997); • training students in ethnographic methods (Johns, 1988; 1990); • having students compare and contrast a variety of texts in familar and unfamiliar genres (Johns, 1997; 1999); • having students reflect on strategies they use to complete writing tasks (Johns, 1997; 1999).

45. Learning context/task • Teaching-for-transfer techniques (Perkins & Salomon, 1988): • Hugging = having students do activities that are similar to activities in transfer contexts • Bridging = having students do activities that require abstract thinking

46. Future directions? • How can we most effectively identify learning transfer? • Where should we look? (all writing vs. some writing) • When should we look? (immediately vs. delayed) • How should we look? (low-road vs. high-road) • How do various learning outcomes in L2 writing education compare/contrast in terms of learning transfer? (e.g., near vs. far; low-road vs. high-road) • How do elements of transfer situations interact with actual learning transfer? (e.g., transfer climate; transfer motivation; teaching-for-transfer techniques)

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