Sea Power and Maritime Affairs

1. Sea Power and Maritime Affairs Lesson 5: The U.S. Navy in the Napoleonic Era, 1783-1815

2. Learning Objectives: • The student will comprehend the influence of European events upon American trade and naval policy during this period. • The student will understand and be able to explain the term “Battle of Annihilation.” • The student will know the background of Jefferson’s defensive naval strategy including the use of gunboats and forts. Know the causes and naval operations of the Napoleonic Wars. • The student will know (recall) operations against the Barbary corsairs during this period. • The student will comprehend the main factors of the European war and their effect on causing the War of 1812. • The student will understand and be able to explain the term “Guerre de Course.” • The student will know the U.S. and British Naval Strategy during the war.

3. Learning Objectives: • The student will comprehend the Great Lakes campaign and its importance to the U.S. war effort. • The student will comprehend (compare and contrast) the naval strategies of Rodgers and Decatur. • The student will comprehend the significance of the Washington and New Orleans campaigns. • The student will know the contributions of the U.S. Navy during the war of 1812, and assess the state of the Navy after the treaty of Ghent

4. Remember our Themes! • The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy • Interaction between Congress and the Navy • Interservice Relations • Technology • Leadership • Strategy and Tactics • Evolution of Naval Doctrine

5. Remember our Themes! • The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy • Interaction between Congress and the Navy • Interservice Relations • Technology • Leadership • Strategy and Tactics • Evolution of Naval Doctrine (or lack thereof)

6. A New Nation: • Articles of Confederation • Weak central government • No power of taxation. • Congress unable to fund a Navy after Rev War. • 1785 - All Continental Navy warships decommissioned. • New maritime trade markets- • Large American merchant fleet. • China and Mediterranean Sea. • American merchant ships no longer protected by the Royal Navy.

7. A word on Neutrality… • US wanted to trade with anyone, anywhere • “Free ships make free goods” • Belligerents didn’t want US taking their trade during war • This policy was adapted due to the United States’s desire and need to increase revenue • Policy remained in effect until WWI, when the Monroe Doctrine was abandoned • This policy demonstrates America’s lack of identity at the time and how its interests still did not mirror those of the European nations • Image: “colony or nation”

8. POP QUIZ: What was the “Monroe Doctrine”? The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas, such as the United States, Mexico, and others. In return, the United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and in wars between a European power and its colonies. However, if these latter type of wars were to occur in the Americas, the U.S. would view such action as hostile toward itself. The doctrine was issued by President James Monroe during his seventh annual State of the Union address to Congress. It was met first with doubt, then with enthusiasm. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The doctrine was conceived by its authors, especially John Quincy Adams, as a proclamation by the United States of moral opposition to colonialism, but has subsequently been re-interpreted in a wide variety of ways, including by President Theodore Roosevelt as a license for the U.S. to practice its own form of colonialism.

9. Initial Challenges To a New Nation: • Barbary States -- North Africa (Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers) • Demands for tribute to guarantee safe passage in Mediterranean. • War of the French Revolution -- U.S. neutral rights violated. • Great Britain - Orders in Council • French Privateers seize American merchants • The foundation for a naval requirement is laid and debate begins

10. Initial Influences on the U.S.: • The Treaty of Paris (1783) • State of Navy after 1785 was poor • Federalists (Hamilton, Jay): strong Navy, balance of power, must protect trade • Republicans (Jefferson, Henry): too expensive, do not want to provoke European powers, imperialistic • Barbary Pirate attacks (1783-1787) • Demonstrated the need for naval power • Federalist: fight / Republicans: pay tribute • The French Revolution (1792) • 1794: The Navy Act - construction of six superior frigates begins (including USS Constitution)

11. Naval Policy Debate Begins: • U.S. Constitution - 1788. • Stronger federal government with ability to tax. • “The Congress shall have Power To provide and maintain a Navy.” • “The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States.” • Federalists: New England -- Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, John Adams • Proponents of a strong Navy. • Ensure neutral rights on the seas and protect vital trade interests. • Republicans: Middle and Southern States -- Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry • Strong U.S. Navy would provoke European powers. • Navies are expensive and imperialistic - a “luxury”.

12. Beginnings of the U.S. Navy: • Navy Act of 1794 • Navy becomes part of the Department of War. • Secretary of War Henry Knox. • Large 44-gun frigates planned. • More heavily armed than normal frigates. • Faster than Ships of the Line. • 1797: United States, 44 and Constitution, 44 completed -- called Humphrey’s frigates. • Marines deployed on Navy ships. • Continue tradition of British Royal Marines. • Protect Captain and officers from the crew. • Provide musket fire from quarterdeck and “fighting tops”.

13. Too Little Too Late: • Pinckney Treaty • 1794 Breakdown Portuguese-Algerian Relations • 1796 Treaty with Algiers • Treaties with Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis • The Med is reopened to American trading without a Naval response – frigates lay uncompleted in their shipyards

14. Diplomacy and Naval Policy:

15. Jay’s Treaty – 1794: • Spring 1794: Congress finds out about British Orders in Council against US shipping (over 250 U.S. merchant ships seized by this point) • 30-day embargo on all American exports to Britain (capitalizing on Britain’s poor grain harvest that year) • Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton engineer John Jay’s appointment as emissary to London • Hamilton’s Instructions: 1) Do not contravene Franco-American alliance of 1778 2) British West Indies opened to American trade 3) Most favored nation status Treaty fails: American public reacts with hostility – Jay denounced as a scoudrel

16. The Results: • Britain promises to relinquish northwest forts • Opened British East Indies to American trade • MFN status to Americans trading in the British home Isles • British do not rescind their policy of impressment • Americans cannot trade in Caribbean

17. HOWEVER... • No headway on neutral rights • Seizure of goods bound for France • Abandons “Free ships make free goods” • Restrictions on shipping in British West Indies • President Washington delays proclamation of the treaty until 2 February 1796

18. France now the Villain: • Franco-American Alliance severed by Jay’s Treaty • 1796 French seizure of commerce in West Indies • Eject American minister Charles C. Pinckney enrages President Adams • John Adams calls special session of Congress • Non-partisan council to go to France • Money for Navy • A provisional Army • Congress answers 1 July 1797 • United States, Constitution, and Constellation back in the game

19. The XYZ Affair: • French Foreign Minister Talleyrand attempts to extort money from United States • XYZ Affair • American delegation to Paris insulted - Congress and American public outraged. • 1200 copies distributed • “Millions for Defense, not one cent for tribute”

20. Department of Navy: • Department of the Navy established -- 1798. • Benjamin Stoddert - First Secretary of the Navy. • Increase in naval expenditures for: • Shipyards • Ships - completed frigates begun by Navy Act of 1794. • Stoddert’s Navy • 50 ships by end of 1799 • Wanted fleet navy (ships of the line) • Not guerre de course • Major step towards America becoming a major power – America not ready for this level of warfare, thus Stoddert’s effectiveness reduced

21. Republican Naval Policy: • Thomas Jefferson elected in 1800. • Large reductions in Naval funding. • Republicans reduce federal taxation and spending. • All Navy ships sold except 13 frigates. • 7 of the 13 frigates in mothballs. • Jefferson’s “Gunboat” Navy -- a strictly defensive strategy. • Static and weak defense of American coast. • Floating gun platforms - reduced maneuverability.

22. PresidentThomas Jefferson1801-1809 Louisiana Purchase Lewis and Clark Expedition

23. The Barbary Wars 1801-1805

24. Barbary Wars 1801-1805 • Increasing tribute demands of North African states. • William Bainbridge forced to sail George Washington under Algerian flag with tribute to Ottoman sultan. • Undeclared war against the Barbary States begins - 1801. • Secretary of Navy Smith deploys Commodore Richard Dale to Mediterranean

25. Samuel Smith’s Instructions: • Protection of American merchantmen vessels from non-European powers • Wars against such powers blockade would be strategy of choice • Seizure or destruction of ships- whether armed or not • Solitary American frigate would suffice

26. Barbary Wars 1801-1805 • Early commodores unsuccessful: • Robert Dale fails to be aggressive - resigns in 1802. • Thomas Truxton turns down command due to lack of a captain for his flagship and is dismissed from service. • Richard Morris - dismissed for “dilatory conduct”. • Commodore Edward Preble takes command - Sept 1803. • Aggressive tactics are highly successful. • “Preble’s Boys” will command U.S. ships in the War of 1812.

27. CommodoreEdwardPreble“Preble’s Boys”

28. Barbary Wars Operations: • “Hard Luck” Captain William Bainbridge -- Philadelphia captured in Tripoli harbor and crew imprisoned. • Philadelphia held under Tripoli’s guns. • Lieutenant Stephen Decatur -- special warfare mission. • Uses captured Intrepid to board and burn Philadelphia. • Promoted to Captain at age 25. • Eaton’s march on Tripoli. • Includes First Lieutenant Presley O’Bannon and six Marines. • Capture of Derna in April 1805. • Awarded Mameluke sword by Prince Hamet - still used today. • “The shores of Tripoli.” • Boost in support for Marine Corps.

29. To the shores of Tripoli…

30. Burning of the Philadelphia “The most heroic and bold act of the age.”- Admiral Horatio Nelson

31. Barbary Wars

32. Barbary Wars

33. Napoleonic Wars: • French Revolution - 1789 • French aristocracy overthrown. • War with Great Britain resumes in 1793. • French Navy leadership adversely affected. • French Army leadership relatively unaffected - artillery officers. • Change in strategy and tactics from more formal and professional armies. • War between France and continental European powers. • Britain forms a series of five “Coalitions” with continental powers to counter the French - continues Pitt’s Plan. • Early failures by British and allies while French counter-revolution threatened republicans. • French Empire established under Emperor Napoleon.

34. Napoleonic Wars Naval Confrontation : • Fleet engagements between Royal Navy and French Navy and French allies’ navies: • Battle of the “Glorious” First of June -- 1794 • Battle of Cape St. Vincent -- February 1797 • Battle of Camperdown -- October 1797 • Battle of the Nile -- 1 August 1798 • Battle of Copenhagen -- 2 April 1801 • Battle of Trafalgar -- 21 October 1805 • Admiral Horatio Nelson • Highly successful through the use of melee tactics. • “Concept of Operations” to ship captains prior to battle.

35. AdmiralHoratioNelson

36. Nelson and his captains on the eve of Trafalgar.

37. Nelson - Mortally wounded at Trafalgar.

38. British Victory at Trafalgar • Great Britain secures command of the seas. • French threat to invade England ended. • Great Britain’s overseas commerce flourishes. • Royal Navy gains ability to threaten U.S. commerce with France and other countries. • French Navy declines in strength. • Napoleon’s army still supreme on European continent. • Continental System established in Europe to isolate Great Britain. • Napoleonic Wars continue until Napoleon is defeated by Britain’s Duke of Wellington at Waterloo - 1815.

40. The War of 1812

41. Causes of the War of 1812 • British at war with France • British begin to seize U.S. Ships • Neutral rights categorized • Visit and search of merchant men by naval vessels • Ports closed in peacetime • Impressment

42. Neutral Rights of U.S. Shipping • Great Britain at war with the French Empire • British seize U.S. merchant ships. • Dispute over neutral rights: • Blockade • United States: Must be effective to be legal. • Great Britain: “Paper blockades” are binding. • Visit and search of merchants by naval vessels. • United States: Only in restricted areas. • Great Britain: Virtually anywhere on high seas. • Ports • United States: Can be open to neutral trade during war. • Great Britain: Must remain closed. • Impressment • United States: Search of neutral vessels for British subjects is illegal. • Great Britain: Search of neutral vessels for British subjects is okay.

43. Chesapeake - Leopard Affair (1807) • Impressment • USS Chesapeake attacked by HMS Leopard. • Issues • Sanctity of a warship as part of national territory. • American commander's unreadiness to fight. • Result • American public opinion increases against Great Britain. • Jefferson imposes embargo on American merchants.

44. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair – (1807):

45. Jefferson’sGunboat Navy1807-1809

46. The Road to War: • President Madison - 1809 • Begins to move naval policy away from building gunboats. • Responds to Congress’ wish to build up frigate Navy • Jeffersonian • 1 May 1811: HMS Guerrière impresses American seaman within sight of New York • 10 May 1811: USSPresident vs. HMSLittle Belt • John Rodgers • Destroys British sloop-of-war

47. The Road to War: • 12th Congress: the “War Hawks” • Henry Clay of Kentucky • John C. Calhoun of South Carolina • Madison was on-board • coastal fortifications • limited activation of gunboats • offshore operation of frigates • recommendations for military augmentation

48. Congress Answered: • Navy receives funds to refortify • dockyard for frigate repair • refused proposal for 10 new frigates and twelve 74s • Opponents of new Construction • Same arguments as before- but they’re valid

49. The Road to War: • War in Europe turns in France’s favor -- 1812. • U.S. Declaration of war against Great Britain - June 1812. • Neutral rights, impressment, and Indian relations. • Minimal U.S. Army and Navy strength. • US is unprepared

50. Napoleonic Wars -- 1812-1815 • Continental Europe • Napoleon’s France (Land Power) versus Coalitions. • Maritime Europe • Great Britain (Sea Power) versus France (Severely weakened at sea by defeat at Trafalgar in 1805). • Naval Strategies • Britain blockades French ports. • French use “Continental System” as a blockade of British trade. • “Guerre de Course” -- Commerce Raiding • Practiced by both sides. • Includes privateering. • Global war: • Atlantic, West Indies, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, Pacific