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THE TURBULENT SIXTIES

This chapter explores President Kennedy's intensification of the Cold War, including his response to the Berlin Crisis, the Bay of Pigs fiasco, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. It also examines Kennedy's economic reforms, civil rights record, and the escalation of the Vietnam War under his administration.

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THE TURBULENT SIXTIES

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  1. THE TURBULENT SIXTIES America: Past and Present Chapter 30

  2. Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War • John F. Kennedy a "Cold Warrior" • Kennedy advisors support U.S. hard line against Russia

  3. Flexible Response • Arms buildup • conventional armed forces • the nuclear arsenal • Special Forces • U.S. strength tempts new administration to challenge U.S.S.R.

  4. Crisis over Berlin • 1961--Khrushchev renews threat again to give Berlin to East Germany • Kennedy’s response • announce crisis on nationwide television • call up the National Guard • Soviets retreat • Berlin Wall built

  5. Containment in Southeast Asia • Kennedy sees Southeast Asia as focus of U.S.-Soviet rivalry • support Saigon’s Diem regime • sends 16,000 American military "advisors" • November, 1963--coup against Diem • Kennedy accepts • coup further destabilizes South Vietnam • U.S. involvement in Vietnam deepened

  6. Containing Castro:The Bay of Pigs Fiasco • Kennedy supports “anti-Castro forces in exile” • Bay of Pigs invasion a part of 1960 CIA plan under Eisenhower • April, 17 1961—Invasion • 1,400 Cuban exiles land without expected U.S. military support • Defeated within 48 hours • Kennedy takes responsibility in defiant speech against “communist penetration”

  7. Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis • October, 1962--Soviet nuclear missiles confirmed in Cuba • Plan to blockade, invade Cuba • October 22--Kennedy informs Americans of Cuban Missile Crisis • October 28--Khrushchev agrees to remove missiles

  8. Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis (2) • Political • Kennedy’s popularity soars • Democrats gain in Congressional elections • Diplomatic effects • moderation of the Cold War • Russians begin naval, nuclear buildup

  9. The New Frontier at Home • Kennedy staff competent, activist • Seeks legislative and economic reform • JFK the administration's greatest asset

  10. The Congressional Obstacle • Congress controlled by Southern Democrat-Republican coalition • Coalition blocks far-reaching reform • Kennedy does not challenge Congress

  11. Economic Advance • Economic stimulation • increased space, defense spending • informal wage and price guidelines • 1962--U.S. Steel forced to lower prices • 1963--tax cut spurs one of the longest sustained advances in U.S. history • Kennedy's economic policies double growth, cut unemployment

  12. Moving Slowly on Civil Rights • Downplay civil rights legislation to avoid alienating Southern Democrats • May, 1961--federal marshals sent to protect Birmingham freedom riders • 1962--federal marshals, National Guard to U. of Mississippi • 1963--deputy attorney general faces down George Wallace at U. of Alabama

  13. "I Have a Dream" • May, 1963--violent police suppression of nonviolent protestors in Birmingham • Kennedy intervenes on side of blacks • Congress asked for civil-rights laws • August, 1963--MLK leads March on Washington • Kennedy record disappointing to supporters, ultimately effective

  14. The Supreme Court and Reform • Defendants’ rights in criminal cases • Legislative reapportionment of states • 1962--Baker v. Carr establishes "one man, one vote" • Greater social justice achieved • rights of the underprivileged protected • dissent and free expression protected

  15. "Let Us Continue" • November 22, 1963--JFK assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald • Lyndon Johnson promises to continue Kennedy's programs • Johnson ultimately exceeds Kennedy’s record on economic, racial equality

  16. Johnson in Action • Poor image on television • Effective manager of Congress • Spring, 1964--Kennedy's tax cut passed • July 2-- Civil Rights Act • bans public segregation • protects voting rights

  17. The Election of 1964 • 1964--Johnson launches “war on poverty” to • encourage self-help • reduce poverty • Johnson wins landslide election against Republican Barry Goldwater

  18. The Triumph of Reform • 1965 Great Society legislation advances beyond New Deal • Medicare • Medicaid • Elementary and Secondary Education Act • Voting Rights Act

  19. African American Voter Registration Before and After Passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1964

  20. The Second Great Migration:A Theoretical Example

  21. Johnson Escalates the Vietnam War • Hawkish foreign policy continued • 1965--troops sent to Dominican Republic • Determined not to "lose" Vietnam to the Communists

  22. The Vietnam Dilemma • 1964--Saigon on the verge of collapse • Johnson’s initial response • refuse to send American combat forces • economic aid • military advisers • covert actions • August 1964--Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

  23. Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War

  24. Escalation • Johnson seeks to avoid diverting resource from Great Society to Vietnam • U.S. effort intended to bring Hanoi into peace negotiations • Policy of secrecy and deceit to assure Americans of Vietnam’s insignificance

  25. Stalemate • 1968--500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam • War of attrition increases American losses, enrages South Vietnamese • Johnson’s tactics fail to win the war • Americans gradually turn against the war

  26. U.S. Troop Levels in Vietnam (as of Dec. 31 each year)

  27. Years of Turmoil • Exceptional unrest at home • Continued escalation of Vietnam war

  28. The Student Revolt • 1964--student protest movement launched at Berkeley • Challenge older generation’s materialism • Vietnam War targeted • Widespread cultural uprising

  29. Protesting the Vietnam War • October, 1967--100,000 protesters besiege the Pentagon • Demonstrations suppressed by a combination of force, concessions

  30. The Cultural Revolution • Rejection of older values through • sexual expression • clothing • drugs • music • Some extremism provokes outrage • Serious challenge to hypocrisy of American society

  31. "Black Power" • 1964-1967--riots in northern cities • Rise of militant leaders • black separatism • armed struggle • MLK leads anti-poverty crusade • April, 1968--MLK assassinated • Militancy increases African American pride

  32. Ethnic Nationalism • Multiple groups emulate African American movement • 1965--César Chávez organizes National Farm Workers' Association • Chicanos win federal mandate for bilingual education

  33. Women's Liberation • 1963--Friedan's The Feminine Mystique • New feminist activism • 1964 Civil Rights Act used to attack inequality in employment • pro-choice advocacy on abortion • seek to toughen enforcement of rape laws • 1972--Congress sends Equal Rights Amendment to the states

  34. The Return of Richard Nixon • 1968 a year of turmoil • presidential election • turning point in the Vietnam War • massive protests in the streets • Richard Nixon election demonstrates desire for national reconciliation

  35. Vietnam Undermines Lyndon Johnson • 1968--Tet Offensive leads to conclusion that Vietnam war cannot be won • March--Johnson announces he will not seek another term as president

  36. The Democrats Divide • Rivals • Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy • Robert Kennedy • party leaders favor Hubert Humphrey • Kennedy assassinated during campaign • 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago besieged by antiwar protestors • Democrats wounded in public opinion

  37. The Republican Resurgence • Republicans unite on Richard Nixon • George Wallace’s third party candidacy draws Democratic votes • Nixon wins narrow victory

  38. The End of an Era • Election of 1968 ends thirty-year era of liberal reform, activist foreign policy • Americans seek less intrusive government

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