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Chapter 7

Chapter 7. Thought, Language, and Intelligence. Questions We Will Be Addressing in This Chapter. What good is thinking, anyway? What are thoughts made of? Do people always think logically? What’s the best way to solve a problem? How can I become a better decision maker?

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Chapter 7

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  1. Chapter 7 Thought, Language, and Intelligence

  2. Questions We Will Be Addressing in This Chapter What good is thinking, anyway? What are thoughts made of? Do people always think logically? What’s the best way to solve a problem? How can I become a better decision maker? How do babies learn to talk?

  3. Questions We Will Be Addressingin This Chapter (cont’d) How is intelligence measured? How good are IQ tests? Is there more than one type of intelligence?

  4. Basic Functions of Thought What good is thinking, anyway?

  5. Figure 7.1: The Circle of Thought

  6. Figure 7.2: An Information-Processing Model

  7. Mental Representations: The Ingredients of Thought What are thoughts made of?

  8. How Can Information Be Mentally Represented? Concepts Formal concepts Natural concepts & prototypes Propositions Schemas Scripts Mental models Images Cognitive maps

  9. Thinking Strategies Do people always think logically?

  10. Reasoning Formal reasoning Algorithms Rules of logic Deductive reasoning Informal reasoning “Inductive reasoning” Use of heuristics

  11. Potentially Problematic Heuristics Anchoring bias Representativeness heuristic Availability heuristic

  12. Problem Solving What’s the best way to solve a problem?

  13. Strategies for Problem Solving Use means-end analysis “Decomposition” Work backwards Find analogies See Focus on Research – Problem-solving Strategies in Real World

  14. Obstacles to Problem Solving Multiple hypotheses Mental sets Functional fixedness Ignoring negative evidence Confirmation bias

  15. Artificial Intelligence: Problem Solving by Computer Symbolic reasoning and computer logic Limited by difficulty at forming natural concepts Neural network models Potential of human-machine teamwork

  16. Creative Thinking Inferred from performance on certain tests and other creative process products. e.g., tests of divergent thinking Necessary characteristics Expertise in the field of endeavor. A set of creative skills. Motivation to pursue creative work for internal reasons.

  17. What Influences Creativity? Is creativity inherited? Yes, but also influenced by one’s social, economic, and political environment. Does one have to be smart to be creative? Don’t have to be a genius. Creativity involves divergent, not convergent thinking Wisdom is the combination of intelligence and creativity.

  18. Decision Making How can I become a better decision maker?

  19. Making Risky Decisions How do we evaluate decision options? Utility placed on each feature of each option. The expected value of a decision. Why don’t we act in ways that maximize expected value?

  20. Biases and Flaws in Decision Making Loss aversion Biases in how think about probability Overestimate probability of rare events; underestimate probability of frequent events. Gambler’s fallacy Overconfidence in the accuracy of one’s predictions Linkages – Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making

  21. Language How do babies learn to talk?

  22. Basic Elements of Language Symbols, such as words. Grammar, or a set of rules for combining those symbols.

  23. Stages of Language Development First year Importance of early experience. Begin to produce babblings. By 10-12 months can understand several words. Second year One-word stage of speech lasts about 6 months Around 18 months, begin to combine words into telegraphic or two-word sentences. Three-word sentences come next.

  24. Stages of Language Development (cont’d.) By age 3, begin to use auxiliary verbs, create complex sentences, and ask questions. By age 5, have acquired most of the grammatical rules of native language.

  25. VIDEO: Early Childhood: Language Development

  26. How Do We Learn Grammar? Through positive reinforcement? Learn through modeling or imitation. Also analyze underlying patterns of language to learn the underlying rules.

  27. Biological Bases for Language Acquisition Chomsky: We are born with a built-in universal grammar. Genetic predispositions interact with experience. Others: Language development reflects the development of more general cognitive skills. Evidence suggests that humans are innately “prewired” for language. Appears to be a critical period for learning language.

  28. Bilingualism Does simultaneously learning two languages impair the learning of either? Eventually show enhanced performance in each language. Balanced bilingual show some cognitive advantages.

  29. Testing Intelligence How is intelligence measured?

  30. Characteristics of Intelligence Abstract thinking and reasoning ability Problem-solving abilities Capacity to acquire knowledge

  31. A Brief History of Intelligence Tests Binet (1904): Can French children doing poorly in school be identified? Developed a set of intellectual tasks that became model for current intelligence tests. Binet’s assumptions: Reasoning, thinking, and problem-solving all depend on intelligence. Children’s mental abilities increase with age.

  32. A Brief History of Intelligence Tests (cont’d) Stanford-Binet Test Developed by Terman (1916) IQ = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) * 100 Allowed ranking of people based on IQ. Contemporary intelligence tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) Stanford-Binet (SB5)

  33. Figure 7.10: The Distribution of IQScores in the Population

  34. Evaluating Intelligence Tests How good are IQ tests?

  35. What Is a Test? A systematic observation of behavior in a standard situation. Behavior is described with the help of a numerical scale or system of categories. Importance of standardization. Test scores can be used to calculate norms.

  36. Evaluating the Value of IQ Tests Statistical Reliability Degree to which test results or other research evidence occurs repeatedly Statistical Validity Degree to which test scores are interpreted appropriately and used properly Not a perfect measure of “smartness” Stereotype threat phenomenon

  37. VIDEO: Stereotype Threat Discussion Questions

  38. Figure 7.11: Correlations of IQ Scores

  39. Group Differences in IQ Scores Important considerations Group scores do not describe individuals. Inherited characteristics are not necessarily fixed. Socioeconomic differences Ethnic differences Variation within ethnic groups is much greater than variation between groups. Environmental differences Thinking Critically – IQ Tests and Bias

  40. Diversity in Intelligence Is there more than one type of intelligence?

  41. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Analytic intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence

  42. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-mathematical Spatial Musical Body-kinesthetic Intrapersonal Interpersonal Naturalistic

  43. Unusual Intelligence Giftedness Mental Retardation Genetic causes Environmental causes Familial retardation

  44. How Do Mildly Retarded Individuals Differ From Others? Perform mental operations more slowly. Know fewer facts about the world. Not very good at using mental strategies important in learning and problem solving.

  45. End of Chapter 7

  46. Focus on Research: Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real World What was the researcher’s question? How did the Wright brothers solve the problem of creating a heavier-than-air flying machine? How did the researcher answer the question? Used a “comparative case study” method. Continue to next slide

  47. Focus on Research: Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real World (cont’d.) What did the researcher find? The Wright brothers had a lot of spare time to work on their designs. They were familiar with lightweight, but sturdy, structures. The brothers had a good working relationship. As mechanics, they were good with their hands. They spent considerable time and energy testing aircraft components before field-testing the complete machines. Continue to next slide

  48. Focus on Research: Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real World (cont’d.) What do the results mean? The Wright brothers used decomposition as their problem-solving strategy. What do we still need to know? Is decomposition used in other real-world settings? Return to main slide

  49. Linkages: Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making Group interactions can shape the outcome of a group decision. Sometimes can lead to extreme decisions (“group polarization”). Are people better at problem solving and decision making in groups? Depends on the obviousness of the solution. Problems of social loafing and groupthink. Brainstorming is not necessarily beneficial. Return to main slide

  50. Thinking Critically: Are IQ Tests Unfairly Biased Against Certain Groups? What am I being asked to believe or accept? Standardized intelligence tests are not fair. Is there evidence available to support the claim? Noncognitive factors may put certain groups at a disadvantage. Many intelligence tests may be culture-specific. Test may reward those who interpret questions as expected by the test designer. Continue to next slide

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