Nature & Origin of Crime MIAN ALI HAIDER L.L.B., L.L.M( Cum Laude ) (UK)

1. Nature & Origin of Crime MIAN ALI HAIDER L.L.B., L.L.M(Cum Laude) (UK)

2. It is criminal to steal a purse, It is daring to steal a fortune. It is a mark of greatness to steal a crown. The blame diminishes as the guilt increases. Johann Schiller (1759-1805) We sow an act and reap a habit: We sow a habit and reap a character: We sow a character and reap a destiny. William Black (1893)

4. Crime can be defined… • Form of normal behavior • Violation of behavioral norms • Form of deviant behavior • Legally defined behavior • Violation of human rights • Social harm/injury • Form of inequality Social, Legal, and Moral dimensions involved

5. Emile Durkheim (1893) • Made three specific claims about the nature of crime: • Crime is normal • Crime is inevitable • Crime is useful

6. Crime is normal • As normal as birth and marriage • Crimes occur in all societies • They are closely tied to the facts of collective life • Crime rates tend to increase as societies evolve from lower to higher phases

7. Crime is normal • In societies with mechanical solidarity punishment was more severe • Criminal act offends the strong, well-defined common consciousness • A crime against another person=crime against the entire society • Rejection was the most terrible punishment

8. Crime is inevitable • No society can ever be entirely rid of crime • Imagine a community of saints in a perfect and exemplary monastery • Faults that appear venial to the ordinary person will arouse the same scandal as does normal crime • Absolute conformity to rules is impossible • Each member is society faces variation in background, education, heredity, social influences

9. Crime is useful • Crime is indispensable to the normal evolution of law and morality • Crime often is a symptom of individual originality and a preparation for changes in society • Rosa Parks (was a criminal) is a hero now • Her simple act of protest galvanized America's civil rights revolution

10. What is crime? • Crime can be defined in a variety ways • At least four definitional perspectives • Legalistic • Political • Sociological • Psychological

11. Crime as legally defined behavior • Rooted in the criminal law (without law there can be no crime • The most precise definition • The narrowest definition • Classic definition of crime is often quoted from Paul Tappan’s writings “crime is an intentional act in violation of the criminal law committed without defense or excuse, and penalized by the state as a felony” (1947)

12. Legalistic definition • Crime is human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of state, the federal government, or a local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws • Is anything wrong with this definition? • Moral definitions of crime suggests that a lot more victimization and injury occurring than is accounted for by the legal order.

13. Political view of crime • Powerful groups of people label selected undesirable forms of behavior as illegal • Powerful individuals use their power to establish laws and sanctions against less powerful persons and groups • Official statistics indicate that crime rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban areas • Self-reports of prison inmates show that prisoners are members of the lower class

14. Political perspective • Crime of inequality includes a lot of behaviors that are omitted by legalistic definition • Crime is a political concept used to protect powerful people • Crimes of power (price fixing, economic crimes, unsafe working conditions, nuclear waste products, war-making, domestic violence, etc)

15. Sociological perspective • A more comprehensive sociological definition of crime was offered by Julia and Herman Schwendinger (1975) • “Crime encompasses any harmful acts, including violations of fundamental prerequisites for well-being (such as food, shelter, clothing, medical service, challenging work and recreational experiences, as well as security from predatory individuals or repressive and imperialistic elites”

16. Sociological perspective • Schwendingers have challenged criminologists to be less constrained in what they see as a crime • Violation of human rights • When a man who steals a paltry sum can be called a criminal while agents of the State can legally reward men who destroy food so that price level can be maintained while a sizable portion of population suffers from maltinutrition

17. Psychological perspective (moralistic view) • Any behavior which stands in the way of an individuals developing to his/her fullest potential would be considered crime • If criminologists adopted this view of crime, the scope of criminology would be greatly expanded..

18. Introduction to Criminological Theory Several theoriesattempt to explain criminal behavior. Some theories assume: Crime is part of human nature. Crime is based on biological, psychological, sociological, and/or economic aspects.

19. Classical Theory One of the earliest approaches to explaining the causes of crime was classical theory. In 1764, criminologist CesareBeccaria wrote An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, which set forth classical criminological theory. He argued that the only justified rationale for laws and punishments was the principle of utility.

20. utility The principle that a policy should provide “the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number.”

21. Classical Theory Beccaria believed the basis of society, as well as the origin of punishments and the right to punish, is the social contract. The only legitimate purpose of punishment is special deterrenceand general deterrence.

22. classical theory A product of the Enlightenment, based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it.

23. social contract An imaginary agreement to sacrifice the minimum amount of liberty to prevent anarchy and chaos. special deterrence The prevention of individuals from committing crime again by punishing them. continued…

24. general deterrence The prevention of people in general or society at large from engaging in crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them.

25. Neoclassical Theory Classical theory was difficult to apply in practice. It was modified in the early 1800s and became known as neoclassical theory.

26. neoclassical theory A modification of classical theory in which it was conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might inhibit the exercise of free will.

27. Neoclassical Theory Neoclassical theory introduced the idea of: Premeditation as a measure of the degree of free will. Mitigating circumstances as legitimate grounds for diminished responsibility.

28. Neoclassical Theory Classical and neoclassical theory are the basis of the criminal justice system in the United States.

29. Positivist Approaches to Explaining Crime The theory of the positivist school of criminology grew out of positive philosophy and the logic and methodology of experimental science.

30. The Positivist School of Thought The key assumptions of the positivist school of thought were: Human behavior is determined and not a matter of free will. Criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals. Social scientists can be objective in their work. Crime is frequently caused by multiple factors.

31. Biological Theories Biological theories of crime causation (biological positivism) are based on the belief that criminals are physiologically different from noncriminals. The cause of crime is biological inferiority.

32. biological inferiority According to biological theories, a criminal’s innate physiological makeup produces certain physical or genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from noncriminals.

33. Heredity Studies Several studies have attempted to determine if criminality is hereditary by studying: family trees statistics identical and fraternal twins adopted children All of these methods fail to prove that criminality is hereditary, because they cannot separate hereditary influences from environmental influences.

34. Modern Biocriminology Ongoing research has revealed numerous biological factors associated either directly or indirectly with criminal or delinquent behavior: • chemical, mineral, and vitamin deficiencies in the diet • diets high in sugar and carbohydrates • hypoglycemia continued…

35. Modern Biocriminology • ingestion of food dyes and lead • exposure to radiation • brain dysfunctions

36. Positivist Approaches Today, most criminologists believe that criminal behavior is the product of a complex interaction between biology and environmental or social conditions.

37. Positivist Approaches Biology or genetics gives an individual a predisposition to behave in a certain way. Whether a person actually behaves in that way and whether that behavior is defined as a crime depend on environmental or social conditions.

38. Psychological Theories There are many theories regarding psychological causes of crime, including: • Intelligence and crime • Psychoanalytic theories

39. Intelligence and Crime The idea that crime is the product primarily of people of low intelligence has been popular occasionally in the United States. A study in 1931 showed no correlation between intelligence and criminality.

40. Psychoanalytic Theories Psychoanalytic theories of crime causation are associated with the work of Sigmund Freud who believed that people who had unresolved deep-seated problems were psychopaths.

41. psychopaths Persons characterized by no sense of guilt, no subjective conscience, and no sense of right and wrong. They have difficulty in forming relationships with other people; they cannot empathize with other people. They are also called sociopaths or antisocial personalities.

42. Sociological Theories Sociologists emphasize that human beings live in social groups and that those groups and the social structure they create influence behavior. Most sociological theories of crime causation assume that a criminal’s behavior is determined by his or her social environment and reject the notion of the born criminal.

43. The Theory of theChicago School In the 1920s, a group of sociologists known as the Chicago Schoolattempted to uncover the relationship between a neighborhood’s crime rate and the characteristics of the neighborhood.

44. The Theory of theChicago School Studies found that neighborhoods that experienced high delinquency rates also experienced social disorganization.

45. social disorganization The condition in which the usual controls over delinquents are largely absent, delinquent behavior is often approved of by parents and neighbors, there are many opportunities for delinquent behavior, and there is little encouragement, training, or opportunity for legitimate employment.

46. Anomie or Strain Theory Robert Merton in 1938 wrote about a major contradiction in the U.S. between cultural goals and social structure. He called the contradiction anomie.

47. anomie For Merton, the contradiction between the cultural goal of achieving wealth and the social structure’s inability to provide legitimate institutional means for achieving the goal.

48. Anomie or Strain Theory Merton argued that the limited availability of legitimate institutionalized means to wealth puts a strain on people. People adapt through: Conformity—playing the game. Innovation—pursuing wealth by illegitimate means. continued…

49. Anomie or Strain Theory Ritualism—not actively pursuing wealth. Retreatism—dropping out. Rebellion—rejecting the goal of wealth and the institutional means of getting it.

50. Learning Theories Edwin H. Sutherland—in his theory of differential association—was the first 20th-century criminologist to argue that criminal behavior was learned. This theory, modified, remains one of the most influential theories of crime causation.