Network Security

1. POCS Seminar Series 2006 Network Security • by Georgi Todorov • Dowling College • Oakdale, NY, 11769 • http://mcs.dowling.edu/POCS/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike2.5 License

2. Outline • The Network Security Problem • Cryptography • Modern Cryptography • Symmetric-Key Algorithms • Cryptanalysis • Public-Key Algorightms by Georgi Todorov Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike2.5 License

3. Outline • Digital Signatures • IPSec • Firewalls • VPN • Wireless security by Georgi Todorov Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike2.5 License

4. Outline • Kerberos • PGP • SSL • Practical: GnuPG by Georgi Todorov Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike2.5 License

5. The Network Security Problem • Computer Networks (before) - university researchers, corporate employees. • Computer Networks (now) - millions use it for banking, shopping, tax returns etc.

6. The Network Security Problem • Security is concerned with preventing unauthorized access or use of information or resources. • Reasons for security problems: for fun, for revenge, for theft

7. NOTE!!! • The biggest problems in security are caused by incompetent employees, bad security procedures, and inside attacks rather than decoding encrypted messages stolen from tapped phone lines.

8. Cryptography • “Cryptography or cryptology is a field of mathematics and computer science concerned with information security and related issues, particularly encryption and authentication.” - Wikipedia [1] • The term comes from Greek and it means “secret writing”, hence cryptology -> “the study of secret writing” • Cryptanalysis is the study of codebreaking

9. Modern Cryptography • Modern cryptography includes the following main areas of study: • Symmetric-key cryptography • Public-key cryptography • Cryptanalysis • Cryptographic primitives • Cryptographic protocols

10. Symmetric-key algorithm • “Symmetric-key algorithms are a class of algorithms for cryptography that use trivially related cryptographic keys for both decryption and encryption.” - Wikipedia [2] • Two types: • Stream ciphers - one bit at a time • Block ciphers - number of bits(64) as a single unit

11. Symmetric-key algorithm • Hundreds or thousands of times faster • Encryption functions are reversible • Same input produces same output • DES, AES

12. Symmetric-key algorithm - DES (Data Encryption Standard) • Developed by IBM and adopted by the U.S. Government in january 1977 • Encoding: • Text is divided into 64 bits • First stage: Permutation of the text • 16 rounds of processing: key(last32bits); XOR(first32bits,key(last32bits));Flip pair • Last stage: inverse permutation • Problems: too short -> 3DES (2 keys)

13. Symmetric-key algorithm - AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) • Developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen • Operates on a 4x4 array of bytes (or more for more than 128 bit key size). Each round of AES excluding the last one consist of four steps: • AddRoundKey, SubBytes, ShiftRows, MixColumns • For more info:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard

14. Cryptanalysis • Differential cryptanalysis -> technique for attacking any block cipher, stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. How differences in an input can affect the resultant difference at the output. • DES can be successfully broken with an effort on the order of 2^47 chosen plaintexts. • Linear cryptanalysis -> works by XORing certain bits in the plaintext and ciphertext together. • It can break DES in only 2^43 known plaintexts • Electrical power consumtion (3 volts for 1 and 0 for 0)-> very powerful • Timing analysis - if, else -> different timing

15. Public-Key Algorithms • Based on the computational complexity of number theory • Encryption (public) key is different from the decryption(private) key. One cannot be forged by the other but one is inverse of the other. • Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol -> the first to show that public-key cryptography was possible

16. Public-Key Algorithms - RSA(Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) • MIT 1978 • It has survived ALL ATTEMPTS to break it. • One big disadvantage -> quite slow (at least 1024 bit keys) • Widely used today

17. Public-Key Algorithms - RSA(Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) • Summary: • Choose to large prime numbers p and q such that p != q, randomly and independently from each other • compute n = p*q • compute the totient Ф(n) = (p-1)(q-1) • Choose an integer e such that 1 < e < Ф(n), which is comprime to Ф(n) • Compute d such that de = 1 mod Ф(n).

18. Public-Key Algorithms - RSA(Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) • Summary: • Public key consists of n and e • Private key consists of n and d • Example: • p = 61 — first prime number (to be kept secret or deleted securely) • q = 53 — second prime number (to be kept secret or deleted securely) • n = pq = 3233 — modulus (to be made public) • e = 17 — public exponent (to be made public) • d = 2753 — private exponent (to be kept secret) • The public key is (e, n). The private key is d. The encryption function is: • encrypt(m) = m^e mod n = m^17 mod 3233 • where m is the plaintext. The decryption function is: • decrypt(c) = c^d mod n = c^2753 mod 3233 • where c is the ciphertext. • To encrypt the plaintext value 123, we calculate • encrypt(123) = 123^17 mod 3233 = 855 • To decrypt the ciphertext value 855, we calculate • decrypt(855) = 855^2753 mod 3233 = 123

19. Public-Key Algorithms - RSA(Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) • Security: • The RSA problem -> taking eth roots module a composite n: m^e=c mod n where (e,n) is the public key, and c is the ciphertext. • Factoring Large numbers -> As of 2005 the largest number factored b general-purpose methods was 663 bits long, using state-of-the-art distributed methods. No polunomail-time method is known so far!

20. Digital Signatures • Symmetric-Key signatures - > requires central authority that knows everything and whom everyone trusts • Public-Key signatures -> eliminates the requirement of aa central authority

21. Message Digest • One-way hash function • Simpler than signature • Properties: • Given P, it is easy to compute MD(P) • Given MD(P), it is effectively impossible to find P • Given P no one can find P’ such that MD(P’)=MD(P) • A change to the input of even 1 bit produces a very different output • MD5 and SHA-1

22. IPSec • “IPsec (IP security) is a standard for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications by encrypting and/or authenticating all IP packets. IPsec provides security at the network layer.” - Wikipedia [3] • Two modes: • Tunnel mode: port-to-port communications security • Transparent mode: end-to-end security • Dominant use in VPNs • Mandatory part in IPv6

23. Firewalls • Description by Andy Tanenbaum: “Firewalls are just a modern adaptation of that old medieval security standby: digging a deep moat around your castle. This design forced everyone entering or leaving the castle to passover a single drawbridge, where they could be inspected by the I/O police.” [4] • Network layer firewalls do not allow packets to pass through unless they match the rules. These rules are defined by the administrator, or build-in ones are used • Application layer firewalls may stop all packets coming from or to an application (browser, ftp, mail) • Proxies may act as firewall • NAT -> Network Address Translation -> multiple hosts behind a single IP

24. VPN - Virtual Private Network • A overlay network on top of a public network with the properties of a private network. • Based on virtual circuits • Used to connect remote sites of a company • Secure VPN protocols include: • IPsec • SSL (OpenVPN, tun/tap) • PPTP(M$)

25. Wireless Security • WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) - Stream cipher based on the RC4 algorithm • 64bit WEP uses 40 bit key plus 24bit initialization vector forming RC4 traffic key. • After US Gov. restrictions were lifted, 128bit web with 104bit key size was introduced • Average break time 3 min • WPA and WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access) • 128-bit key and 48-bit IV plus Temporal Key Integrity Protocol • Personal -> pre-shared key • Enterprise -> 802.11X authentication • Requires strong password for Personal

26. Kerberos • Authentication protocol which allows individuals communicating over an insecure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner • Builds on symmetric-key cryptography and requires trusted third party • Uses: OpenSSH, NFS, PAM, SOKS, Apache, Devicot IMAP3 and POP3 server and others

27. Kerberos • Outline: • Client and three servers(Authentication server, ticket-granting server and required service server) • client sends name to AS • AS sends session key and ticket to client encrypted with client’s secret key(ask for pwd and rm from system) • Client decrypts session and ticket and sends to TGS, encrypted with TGS’ secret key asking for ticket with SS • TGS returns two versions of the session key for client and SS, one encrypted with Client’s secret key and the other encrypted with SS’ secret key. • Now Client and SS can talk • If Client wants to talk to another SS, he sends a new ticket request directly to TGS

28. PGP - Pretty Good Privacy • PGP provides cryptographic privacy, compression and authentication • Uses both public-key and symmetric-key cryptography • Outline: • PGP generates MD5 of the message and encrypts the result with sender’s private RSA key • Encrypted hash and message are concatenated and compressed. • An IDEA message key is generated and used to encrypt the compressed with IDEA in cipher feedback mode • Also the key is encrypted with the recipient's public key. • Both are concatenated and converted to base64 and sent. • The recipient reverses base64, decrypts the IDEA with his private key, deripts the archive, extracts, and decrypts the hash using senders public key, than generates a new hash and compares both.

29. PGP - Pretty Good Privacy • Supported RSA lengths: • 1. Casual(384 bits): can be broken easily today. • 2. Commercial(512 bits): breakable by three-letter organizations • 3. Military ( 1024 bits): Not breakable by anyone on earth • 4. Alien (2048 bits): Not breakable by anyone on other planets, either • Many public key servers are available

30. SSL - Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security (TLS) • SSL exchanges records; each record can be optionally compressed, encrypted and packed with message authentication code. It also contains content_type field that specifies which upper layer protocol is being used. • Phases: • Peer negotiation for algorithm support • Public key encryption-based key exchange and certificate-based authentication • Symmetric cipher-based traffic encryption • Supported protocols: • RSA, Diffie-Hellman, DSA, Fortezza, RC2, RC4, IDEA, DES, 3DES, AES, MD5, SHA • SSL runs on layers beneath application protocols (HTML,SMTP,NNTP) and above the TCP transport protocol, which forms part of the TCP/IP protocol suite. • It can add security to any protocol that uses reliable connections.

31. GnuPG • GnuPG - Complete implementation of the OpenPGP Internet standard • 'GnuPG' currently supports ElGamal (signature and encrytion), DSA, AES, 3DES. Blowfish, Twofish, CASTS, MD5, SHA-1, RIPE-MD-160 and TIGER, and has language support for sixteen different languages. • http://eudoragpg.sourceforge.net/ver2.0/en/download/index.html -> Eudora plugin • http://www.sente.ch/software/GPGMail/English.lproj/GPGMail.html -> Apple Mail • http://enigmail.mozdev.org/download.html -> Mozilla, General Windows GnuPG

32. References • [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography • [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_key_algorithm • [3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPsec • [4] Andrew Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks 4th Edition”,CH8,