Chapter 7: Inference

1. Chapter 7: Inference Bridging the Gap, 9/eBrenda Smith 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

2. In This Chapter You Will Answer the Questions: • What is an inference, and what does it mean to read between the lines? • What is the connotation of a word? • Why do authors use figurative language, and how can understanding it enhance comprehension? • Why is prior knowledge needed for implied meaning? • How does a reader draw conclusions? 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

3. What Is An Inference? Inferential level deals with: • Motives • Feelings • Judgements • Suggestion • artistic • creative • entertaining 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

4. Connotation of Words • Denotation is the specific meaning of a word. • Connotation refers to the feeling or emotionalism surrounding a word. (Ex: skinny communicates a negative feeling). (Ex: slender or slim communicates a positive feeling). 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

5. Euphemisms and Politically Correct Language • A euphemism is a substitution of a harsh term for one more polite. Example: “He passed away” instead of “He died.” • Politically correct language or doublespeak is used to hide something unpleasant. Example: Using “collateral damage” instead of “civilian casualties.” 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

6. Figurative Language Figurative language comparisons that are not literally true. (Ex: “She worked like a dog”) • Idioms • Similes • Metaphors • Literary Analogies • Hyperbole or Overstatement • Personification • Verbal Irony 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

7. Idioms Idioms are expressions that do not make literal sense but have taken on a new generally accepted meaning over many years of use. (Ex: his eyes were bigger than his stomach) 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

8. Similes A simile is a comparison of two unlike things using the words like or as. (Ex: the spring flower pushed up its bloom like a lighthouse beckoning on a gloomy night.) 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

9. Metaphors A metaphor is a direct comparison of two unlike things (without using like or as). (Ex: The corporate accountant is a computer from nine to five.) 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

10. Literary Analogy • A literary analogy is a comparison of two unlike things that can be a simile or a metaphor. • Example: “Time is like a river.” 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

11. Hyperbole • Hyperbole or overstatement is an exaggeration to describe something as being more than it actually is. • An understatement minimizes the point. • Example of hyperbole: I could sleep for twenty days and nights and still be tired. • Example of understatement: His clothes have seen better days. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

12. Personification • Personification is attributing human characteristics to non-human things. • Example: The birds speak from the forest. • Example: Time marches on. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

13. Verbal Irony • Verbal irony is the use of words to express a meaning that is the opposite of what is literally said. • If the intent is to hurt, the irony is called sarcasm. • Example: “What a great looking corporate outfit!” (said to someone wearing torn jeans). • Example: “There is nothing like a sunny day for a picnic” (said on a day of pouring rain). 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

14. Figurative Language in Poetry • In poetry, the language is often condensed and uses figurative language. • Read the poem several times, at least one time out loud. • Visualize what you read. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

15. Figurative Language in Poetry Example: Campfire extinguished The woman washing dishes In a pan of stars Explanation: When all light is extinguished outside, the stars are so bright that they illuminate the pan for washing. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

16. Inferences From Facts • The author selects facts. • No direct connection is stated. • The reader must figure out the suggested message. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

17. Example of Inferences • Fact 1: The population of all European Union countries combined grew by 343,000 last year. • Fact 2: The population of India grew in the first week of 2001 by 343,000. The inference is that India’s population is increasing at an alarming rate. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

18. Inferences About a Speaker or Narrator • Sometimes we can figure out who the speaker or narrator is by the way they explain something or by their dialogue. • Example:Children now love luxury. They have bad manners, contempt for authority. They show disrespect for elders. They contradict their parents, chatter before company, cross their legs and tyrannize their teachers. • (written by Greek philosopher Plato about 2,300 years ago) 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

19. Inferences Based on Action and Description • Inferences Based on Description of a Person • Inferences Based on Action • Inferences Based on Description of a Place See pages 373-376 for examples of these types of inferences. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

20. Types of Inferences • Inference from actions • Inference from factual material • Inferences from description 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

21. Using Prior Knowledge to Make Inferences • Prior knowledge is expected. • Details help you infer time. • Details help you infer place. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

22. Reader’s Tip: Making Inferences • Consider the attitude in the author’s choice of words. • Unravel actions. • Interpret motives. • Use suggested meaning and facts to make assumptions. • Draw on prior knowledge to make connections. • Base conclusions on stated ideas and unstated assumptions. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

23. Drawing Conclusions • Make a logical deduction from both stated and unstated ideas. • Use hints as well as the facts. • Rely on prior knowledge and experience to interpret motives, actions, and outcomes. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

24. Summary Points • What is an inference? • What is the connotation of a word? • What is figurative language? • Why is prior knowledge needed to grasp implied meaning? • How does a reader draw conclusions? 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

25. Search the Net For suggested Web sites and other research activities, go to http://www.ablongman.com/smith/ 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

26. Concept Prep for Philosophy and Literature • Who were the most notable Greek philosophers? • Socrates • Plato • Aristotle • What are literary genres? • Poetry • Drama • Fiction • Essays 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

27. Concept Prep for Political Science • What is the U.S. Constitution? • What are the three branches of government? • What are political parties? • What are capitalism, communism, and socialism? For information on these political science concepts, see pages 413-414 in your book. 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers

28. Vocabulary Booster • Complete the exercises on root words entitled “Can I Get That in Writing?” 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Publishing as Longman Publishers